ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

ASSIGNMENT
BY- NATRI BAID
COURSE- BA PROGRAM(PHILOSOPHY+PSYCHOLOGY)
FORM NO.- 21029412
 1.NATIONAL SOLAR MISSION

Key point -

Solar energy industry is seen as capable of providing India with the same revolutionary growth that

the IT industry brought.

There was a problem…

India’s energy policy had reached a critical point, with energy demand rising while the supply of

domestic conventional fuels tapers and the need for imported fuel grows.
 1. NATIONAL SOLAR MISSION
What was done?

The Government launched the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission, also known as Solar India, in late 2009 to

achieve grid parity and generate 20,000 MW of grid-connected and 2,000 MW of off-grid solar energy by 2022. It is

part of the National Action Plan on Climate Change, which was released by the Prime Minister's Council on Climate

Change in 2008 and includes seven other missions.

The Ministry of Environment and Forests, the Ministry of Power, the Ministry for New and Renewable Energy, the

Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Science and Technology and the Ministry of Water Resources are involved in the

missions, and each is tasked with coordinating one or more of the strategies.
 1. NATIONAL SOLAR MISSION
How it works?

An autonomous Solar Mission authority within the Ministry for New and Renewable Energy oversees the Solar Mission. A package of

policies was designed to encourage not only new solar energy generation but also technological and human resource development. The

policies specifically target the building of a manufacturing and innovation base for solar thermal and photovoltaic industries in India. A

solar energy industry is seen as capable of ushering in the same revolutionary growth in India that the IT industry brought. Similar to the

“Indian Silicon Valleys” that the IT boom spawned, solar energy research and manufacturing companies could cluster in “Solar Valleys” to

spur business opportunities and innovation. Although the Government plans to create at least 100,000 jobs by the end of 2022, KPMG

India (business advisers) projects that 600,000 jobs in utility-scale, rooftop and agricultural solar (water) pump sets could be created in

the Solar Mission’s final phase, with a further potential of 420,000 jobs in solar water heating.
 
 1. NATIONAL SOLAR MISSION
KPMG India also projects that when grid parity is reached, solar energy generation could offset 30.8 million tons of CO2 emissions – roughly 1 per

cent of the overall Indian emissions or 2.2 per cent of emissions from the electricity sector. In just two years after grid parity, solar installations are

expected to take off and could reduce CO2 emissions by 95 million tons (over 6 per cent of emissions from the electricity sector). A core

component of the Solar Mission policy framework is the feed-in tariff, launched in 2009 and amended to differentiate between solar thermal and

solar photovoltaic installations; it set specific rates for those technologies to better drive development and innovation in each industry. Rates are

fixed for 25-year power purchase agreements and will be reviewed and revised annually. The power purchase agreements are signed with NTPC

Vidyut Vaper Nigam, a wholly owned subsidiary of India’s largest state-owned power generating company, under the Ministry of Power. NTPC

Vidyut Vaper Nigam will bundle the solar energy with cheaper unallocated coal-based generation to sell the power back to distribution utilities at

more affordable prices. The Solar Mission also benefits from existing renewable purchase obligations (India’s state-level renewable energy

standards) as well as a new national system of tradable renewable energy credits, which increases flexibility in renewable energy investments.
 1. NATIONAL SOLAR MISSION
Objectives of the Solar Mission:

1) Provide a policy framework that promotes the deployment of grid-connected and off-grid solar energy generation by the private
sector.

2) Achieve grid parity by 2022. The three-phase plan aims to facilitate solar energy production with government incentives so that
grid parity is reached by 2022.

3) Create jobs. To ramp up solar development, as many as 1 million new jobs could be created in the industry in the next ten years.

4) Build knowledge and a skilled workforce. Developing the solar industry in India requires not only technological development but
also human resource development, thus education is an important component of the Solar Mission.

5) Become a leader in solar technology, particularly solar thermal, and become an exporter of this technology.

6) Develop off-grid solar energy installations. Providing heat and electricity to remote rural areas and poor urban districts via off-grid
solar installations can improve people’s health and quality of life.
 1. NATIONAL SOLAR MISSION
Results-

The Government pledged US$900 million to the first phase of the Solar Mission. Some funds will be used to buy solar energy
and feed it back into the grid, providing secure power purchase agreements to help accelerate the nascent solar market in the
first three years. The solar generation is bundled with conventional thermal power to reduce the cost before it is sold back to
utilities at a competitive price. Reductions of import duties and excise taxes on solar technology components have been
instituted to cut production costs until domestic supply chains can be developed.

These financial mechanisms, along with the policy certainty provided by the 2022 goal, have provided the favourable
conditions necessary to drive solar development. The first batch of bidding for 704 MW of power purchase agreements in 2010
was oversubscribed, with proposals from solar start-ups as well as experienced independent power producers. Although project
developers have proposed thousands of MW of projects, there is a noted lack in manufacturing and development experience,
particularly in concentrated solar power (CSP). Of the 470 MW of CSP projects allocated in 2010, none of the developers had
any experience with concentrated solar power,7 and there was no domestic manufacturing of CSP components at the outset of
the Solar Mission.8 With more solar development on the horizon, a number of universities have instituted new departments and
programmes to train a new generation of labour to meet the growing needs of the solar industry.
 2. PROJECT ELEPHANT
 Introduction

Human-elephant conflict is one of the major threats to existence of elephants outside Protected Areas. Nearly 400 people

and over 100 elephants lose their lives annually due to intense conflicts reveal the seriousness for conservation of elephants

in human-dominated landscapes in India. The 220 km² of Valparaiso plateau within the Annamalai hills in southern Western

Ghats is an important conservation area for elephants. The presence of widely scattered rainforest fragments and riparian

patches within tea and coffee plantations are the only refuge for elephant movements across the plateau into surrounding

protected areas. On other hand, there are about 70,000 people working in tea and coffee plantations which are owned mainly

by six major national and international companies, for their livelihood, compel co-inhabitancy in the plantation - forest matrix

of the plateau.  
 2. PROJECT ELEPHANT
Elephant movements and conflicts on the Valparaiso plateau

The Valparaiso plateau has been intensively used by nearly 80 - 100 elephants annually. The study (April 2010 - March
2011) identified that elephants have shown consistent movement patterns which indicate strong fidelity to their ranges.
 Nadu Air-To-Air Riverine system which flows in the middle of the plateau is vital for elephant movements. This highlights
the need for developing native vegetation along this river with the involvement of local companies to facilitate free
passage for elephants and reduce incidences of conflict. Fatal encounters with elephants and loss of property damage to
buildings which store food grains such as rice, dhal, lentils, and salt by elephants caused fear and trauma in local people
and reducing their tolerance levels. The human-elephant conflict situation was primarily due to lack of advance intimation
about elephant presence

During the study period, elephants have stayed for 732 herd-days (number of days one or more elephant herds or a
single herd split into multiple sub-herds stayed on the plateau).  Though elephant have stayed throughout the year, their
movement was active during the months between October and March (n = 573 herd-days, 78%). The number of property
damage incidents for the year 2010-11 were 125. Most of the damages (n = 78, 62%) occurred between September and
January with a peak during months of November and December (n = 41).
 2. PROJECT ELEPHANT
Implementation of early warning measures

During this project, we have initiated elephant information network by conveying elephant location information in the
following ways:

Establishing conflict response team (CRU): A team of experienced people from indigenous community who track
elephants within plantation limits during the day and record information on date, time, identity of elephant herd, herd
composition, incidence of conflicts, type of habitat, and movement with handheld GPS. The information from CRU was
intimated to the elephant information centre on daily basis.

 Elephant tracking and use of Television network: Location and tracking of elephants from Conflict Response Unit
(CRU) and information from Forest Department field staff and local people was displayed as a ‘crawl’ on local cable TV
channels after 5 PM on a daily basis to reach out to people as an early elephant intimation system. Currently, the cable
channel covers nearly 5,000 families (approximately 20,000 people) on the Valparaiso plateau. Information about
elephant presence was broadcasted on local television channel which also carried an emergency contact number.
Response calls to contact number were systematically noted for analysing the effectiveness of measure.
 2. PROJECT ELEPHANT
Installation of elephant alert indicators: In place of simple red lights as proposed earlier during the study,
with additional support from partner organizations such as Elephant Family, Forest Department, and local
companies, an improved version of semi-automated lights was designed. The alert indicators are mobile
operated with LED-lights installed in 24 locations. These lights signal the presence of elephants and their
movements within a 1km radius of each light. Each indicator is equipped with a SIM card and fitted with red
flashing LED bulbs on a 30 feet pole and are located in strategic places that are visible from up to 1km
distance. Each light can be operated from any of three registered mobile phones. At least two persons from
every “light locality” are registered with each light and are responsible for activating these lights when
information regarding elephants is passed onto them.

Awareness campaigns through audio visual mediums: In an attempt to provide awareness and
education to local residents, a film was made emphasizing the importance of understanding the landscape
and sharing space with elephants. The film portrays various opportunities made available to the people by
conservation group and plantation management to avoid accidental fatal encounters.  
 2. PROJECT ELEPHANT
Effectiveness of conflict measures

 People have received these mitigation measures positively. Effectiveness of these measures were gradually noticed
as the local residents and companies made use of facilities made available. This greatly showed reactions from
people in the form of tolerance and better management techniques in dealing with human-elephant conflict situations.
This is apparent from the response calls to the dedicated mobile contact number on local Television Cable. A total of
347 response calls from people were received during the study period. Of the total calls, a majority of response calls
(51.3%, n = 178 of 347 total calls) were to enquire about elephants whereas about 36.3% (n = 126) of calls were to
convey about elephant presence, seek help from the Forest Department, and requesting for precautionary steps
required to be taken to deal with human-elephant conflict situation. Rest of the calls were unrelated (8.6%, n = 30) and
appreciation (3.7%, n = 13). Similarly, operation of alert indicators was easily adopted by local people where
responsible persons turned the lights when elephants were seen within 1km distance from each light locality.
Monitoring operations of red lights indicate that 98% of the time lights were operated by persons from local community
within five months of installation as against the conservation group. This would also reveal that these measures also
encouraged local community to share and participate responsibly in the management of human-elephant conflict.
 2. PROJECT ELEPHANT

Reduction in incidences of conflicts

The results of the study showed clearly in the following years. Positive results were visible in terms of reduction

in conflict incidents by elephants as there was a gradual cooperation and coordinated efforts taken by people

along with Forest Department field staff between 2009 - 2014 where incidences of damages declined from 125

and 150 in 2010-11 and 2011-12, respectively, to 88 incidents in 2012 - 13 and 97 incidents during 2013 - 14.

Loss of human life gradually declined from four people in 2011 to zero in 2013. However, one death occurred in

2014 when warning messages were ignored which indicates the need for sensitization of people about early

warning systems to be carried out on regular basis.  

 3. CAUVERY WATER CONFLICT
Introduction
The sharing of river waters across political boundaries is a matter of conflict in many countries. India faces a
large number of transnational as well as inter-state conflicts on common water resources. Within India, 16 of the
18 major river basins cover two or more States. Though, ‘Water’ is listed as a state subject in the constitution of
India, the Central Government is empowered to take measures to ensure integrated development of interstate
rivers, establish mechanisms to resolve disputes between riparian states, and intervene in the interests of
environment protection. There are also several national legislations such as the River Boards Act, the Interstate
Water Disputes Act, and those relating to environmental protection, forest conservation, pollution control, etc. The
legal framework consists of provisions regarding the powers of the state in relation to water resource
development and their distribution, the nature of and basis for the rights of different claimants over common
sources of water, and the principles, mechanisms and procedures for resolving disputes. However, they have not
been effective in bringing about a satisfactory solution. Many of these problems are due to the fact that there are
not enough effective guidelines, an accepted set of parameters and indicators to resolve conflicts in addressing
transboundary river water sharing issues.
 3. CAUVERY WATER CONFLICT
The river Cauvery has become a bone of contention between the states,
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu leading to protests, violence and shut downs. On
one hand, Tamil Nadu is alleging that its farmers are being deprived of water
as the volume of water being released by Karnataka is untimely and lesser
in volume. On the other hand, there is a hue and cry in Karnataka for being
deprived of even drinking water. With the reducing resources of freshwater
and rising demand such a scenario is not unimaginable. The dispute brings
to fore an issue which needs imminent attention, for such a scenario may be
replicated for other rivers given the impending threat of climate change and
practices of unsustainable development.
 3. CAUVERY WATER CONFLICT
The Dispute
Cauvery is the longest south Indian river which originates in Karnataka, flows through Tamil Nadu with major
tributaries coming from Kerala and drains into Bay of Bengal through Pondicherry. The dispute therefore
involves 3 states and one Union Territory (Pondicherry). The genesis of the dispute is 150 years old and dates
back to the two agreements of arbitration in 1892 and 1924 between the then Madras presidency and Mysore. It
entailed the principle that the upper riparian state must obtain consent of lower riparian state for any
construction activity viz. reservoir on the river Cauvery.
From 1974, Karnataka started diverting water into its four newly made reservoirs, without the consent of Tamil
Nadu resulting into a dispute. To resolve the matter, Cauvery Water Dispute Tribunal was established in 1990
which took 17 years to arrive at the final order (2007) on how Cauvery water should be shared between the 4
riparian states in normal rainfall conditions. In distress years, pro-rata basis shall be used, it instructed. The
government again took 6 year and notified the order in 2013. This was challenged in Supreme Court which
recently directed Karnataka to release 12000 cusecs of water to Tamil Nadu prompting protests in the State.
 3. CAUVERY WATER CONFLICT
Water Shortage Reasons
On the supply side, as the country is in a grip of a drought for last 2 years, the Cauvery basin
reservoir in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu is 30% and 49% lower than average of last 10 years.
Second, there has been deforestation of the region which has reduced rainfall significantly.
Third, the neglect and overuse of groundwater, traditional tanks and ponds have profoundly
enhanced dependence on the river.
On the demand side, the need and definition of need has expanded. Rapid urbanization and
increasing population around the river is the primary reason. Also, the cropping pattern of
agriculture has shifted towards sugarcane which is highly water intensive and certainly unviable
as of now. Given the supply demand mismatch, perhaps no formula can satiate the needs of all
the parties. There needs to be a more scientific solution taking the long term in perspective.
 3. CAUVERY WATER CONFLICT
Solution
The states need to shed the regional approach as the solution lies in cooperation and coordination, not
in conflict. The planning must be done at the basin level to make the solution sustainable and
ecologically viable. The long due creation of Cauvery Management Board and a regulatory authority to
enforce the tribunal's orders must be done immediately. The solution should be people centric such as
leveraging 'Cauvery Family'-a group formed by farmers of both states to disperse the clouds of
hostility.
In the long term, there is a need to recharge the river through afforestation, river linking etc. Second,
cleaning up of the pollution hotspots must be done with a stringent check on the industrial pollution.
Third, an increased focus is needed on increasing water use efficiency viz. micro irrigation, awareness
in people to prudently use water and water smart strategies. Fourth, cropping pattern must change
towards millets, jowar and other indigenous crops which use much less water and are protein rich.
 3. CAUVERY WATER CONFLICT
The above steps will ensure a sustainable use of limited water
resources. This is an imperative for our country India as we are
constantly moving towards water stressed conditions. We as
individuals must do our bit to conserve and efficiently manage
water to make our country achieve the Goal 6 of the Sustainable
Development Goals by 2030.
 4. CROCODILE CONSERVATION
PROJECT
INTRODUCTION
The author was invited by the Government of India and
UNDP/FAO to evaluate the progress which has been made in
crocodile conservation since a UNDP/FAO Crocodile Breeding
and Management Project was launched in 1975 in co-operation
with the Government of India and various State Governments.
This paper reports the findings of a three month study from
February to May 1982.
 4. CROCODILE CONSERVATION
PROJECT
The status of Indian crocodilians in 1974
Prior to the start of the project in 1974. Dr H. R. Bustard was asked to make a survey of the status of Indian crocodiles
(Bustard, 1981), which produced the following results:
Gharial Gavialis gangeticus
This species, which was formerly abundant in the rivers of North India, was considered in danger of extinction because of
habitat destruction, the lethal effect of set nylon nets and poaching activity. It was found that the surviving populations were
extremely small.
Estuary' crocodile Crocodiles porosis
This species was formerly common along the shores and rivers of the subcontinent, but by 1974 it had become extinct in the
States of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. A small population remained in the Braham ani-Baitarani deltaic area of
Orissa, the Sundarbans of West Bengal and the Andaman islands.
Mugger Crocodiles palustris
By 1974 this species, formerly widespread and very abundant, was greatly depleted in numbers and considered rare in most,
if not all, of its former range. It was considered that in South India/Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh remnant
populations could show a rapid response to management combined with protection and that this could also be the case in
Rajasthan and Gujarat. Much of the mugger habitat has been affected by dam construction resulting in less favorable
conditions for crocodiles and conflict with fisheries because of crocodiles getting caught in nylon gill nets. However, the
species' adaptability to a wide range of habitats, including small ponds and tanks, and its ability to move long distances
overland, tends to reduce its vulnerability.
 4. CROCODILE CONSERVATION
PROJECT
Objectives of the project
The objectives of the project were:
(I) to collect and transport crocodile eggs to rehabilitation centers for
incubation and rearing of young until they were of a size suitable for
release in the wild; and
(2) to locate, establish and manage a network of crocodile
rehabilitation centers and also sanctuaries in suitable habitats for the
three crocodilian species.
 4. CROCODILE CONSERVATION
PROJECT
RESULTS
Sixteen crocodile rehabilitation stations have been established throughout the country since the initiation of the project.
Crocodiles have been released in eleven specially gazette sanctuaries and, in addition, in eight other sanctuaries or
national parks. At the time of writing (April 1982) a total of 879 gharials, 190 estuarine crocodiles and 493 mugger have
been released in the wild. All these crocodiles were three years old on release. Successful breeding of mugger has taken
place in ten centers, of the estuarine crocodile in two and of the gharial. in one center. Further details about the
conservation status of the mugger can be obtained from Choudhury (1982), of the estuarine crocodile in Bustard &
Choudhury (1981) and of gharial in Singh (1978).
No doubt the greatest success was obtained with the re-establishment of the gharial. Viable breeding populations now
exist in the Chambal and Satoshi Gorge sanctuaries, both exhibiting a satisfactory rate of recruitment.
Soon after the initiation of the project it became apparent that a crocodile conservation programmed could not be
successful in the absence of well-trained managerial and research staff, and for that reason a Crocodile Breeding and
Management Training Institute was established by the Government of India in Hyderabad in 1980, which has trained 46
managers for crocodile stations, most of whom are now working at the various rehabilitation stations. In addition, under a
cooperative effort between Dr I. R. Bustard, the FAO adviser, and several universities, four students obtained their PhDs
in various aspects of crocodile biology and ecology, and two are still working towards that goal. The results of their work
and also subsequent findings have been published (Singh, 1978: Choudhury. 1982).
The Government of India is now supporting the work of rehabilitation stations on a 50-50 basis on capital expenditure,
provided that State Governments have requested such funds in aid.
 4. CROCODILE CONSERVATION
PROJECT
DISCUSSION
Although the results obtained so far are a clear indication of the fact that the Government of India and
State Governments have made good progress in establishing an effective programmed of crocodile
conservation, considerable work remains to be done, as is evidenced by the following information:
1. The management of crocodile sanctuaries leaves much to be desired. Although some management plans
have been drafted, none of them has been executed so far. Sanctuaries are either being encroached upon
or are inhabited by man and his beasts; cutting of firewood is a common occurrence; overgrazing takes
place frequently and harassment of wildlife by dogs often occurs; river banks are sometimes cultivated
and/or overgrazed; and, because of the presence of people, poaching is often difficult to control.
2. Inadequate information is available about the fate of crocodiles which have been released, and there are
indications that a certain percentage of released gharials and estuarine crocodiles move out of protected
areas and become threatened by the rural populations. Limited available dally on mugger, however,
indicate good survival rates of liberated stock (B. C. Choudhury, pers. comm.). It will be essential to step up
monitoring of released crocodiles in order to determine how effective released programmed have been so
far.
 4. CROCODILE CONSERVATION
PROJECT
(3) There are general complaints by commercial fishermen that crocodiles cause a decrease in their catches of
commercial fish and that for this reason no further release of crocodiles should be permitted. This is contrary to
the findings of Cot (1961) in Uganda and other studies, that, rather than depleting commercial fish catches,
crocodiles have instead .increased them by controlling the populations of fish predators (fishes. and birds), and
fertilizing the water with their excreta. In addition, young crocodiles prey extensively on many invertebrate
predators of fish fry. As the results obtained in these studies may not necessarily apply in India, an experiment
should be started to study the relationship between crocodile populations and economically valuable fishes.
(4) Much crocodile habitat continues to deteriorate, largely because of man's continuing interference. Mangrove
forests, the best habitat for estuarine crocodiles in India, are either invaded by firewood gatherers or destroyed
altogether in various places. Gharial habitat is affected by increasing erosion of river banks and siltation of river
bottoms. It will be difficult to reverse this trend because of increasing population pressures on the land. The rate
of habitat deterioration should be monitored.
(5) Although India has adopted suitable legislation through the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, protection of
crocodile populations against poaching still leaves much to be desired. For example, Choudhury & Bustard (1980)
have indicated a very high level of predation of estuarine on North Andaman Island. There is a need for better
crocodile nests staffing of crocodile sanctuaries by a cadre of motivated and specially trained protection staff.
 4. CROCODILE CONSERVATION
PROJECT
• In addition to what has already been stated, one major problem in crocodile conservation
in India is the ignorance of the people, who consider that crocodiles are either man-eaters
or competitors which should be eliminated. There is therefore a need to enlighten people
about why crocodile conservation should be undertaken. The best places for doing this
are, in fact, the various Crocodile Rehabilitation Centers now established by State
Governments. Already large numbers of curious some of these centers. This should be
encouraged tourists are visiting further and efforts should be made to have somebody on
hand to explain the objectives of crocodile rehabilitation. In addition, films and slides
about crocodile ecology and pamphlets should be used wherever possible. It is hoped
that the Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute, situated at Hyderabad,
will in the future play a pivotal role in crocodile conservation in India by effectively
advising State personnel about improved management procedures for captive crocodiles
and crocodile sanctuaries and by creating a more favorable attitude among the public at
large for crocodile conservation.