Course Title: Research

Date: 4/8/2022

Lecturer: Mrs Olofinbiyi

Unit 1:Overview of Research

 Definition of Research
• Research is a scientific and systematic way of identifying problems and
providing solutions; validates and refines existing knowledge and develops
new knowledge.

• The ultimate goal of research is the development of an empirical body of

knowledge for a discipline or profession, such as nursing.

• Nursing research requires determining the relevant knowledge needed by nurses.

• Because nursing is a practice profession, research is essential to develop and refine

knowledge that nurses can use to improve clinical practice and promote quality outcomes
 Nursing Research

• Nursing research is a scientific process that validates and refines existing

knowledge and generates new knowledge that directly and indirectly
influences nursing practice. Nursing research is the key to building an
Evidence Based Practice for nursing.

• The ultimate goal of nursing is an evidence-based practice that promotes

quality, safe, and cost effective
 Key Terms Used in Research

• Bias: any influence that may distort the results of a research study and lead to error; the loss of
balance and accuracy in the use of research methods.
• Coded data: data are put into groups or categories, such as age groups, and each category is
given a code number.

• Control group: in experimental research, the group or item which does not receive the
treatment or intervention under investigation and is used to compare outcomes with the one
that does.

• Experiment: a special type of study (not all studies are experiments!) that allows researchers
to determine the cause of an effect; usually involves randomly assigning participants to groups.

• Hypothesis: a scientific guess or a proposition which research sets out to prove or disprove.
• Informed consent: giving potential participants information about the study, especially in terms of
factors that might lead them to refuse to be in the study, before they decide whether to participate.

• Literature review: it is a review of the literature on and around the subject of inquiry. Its main
purposes are to avoid duplication, to identify gaps in research and to place the researcher’s
approach within the work and approaches of others.

• Primary sources: primary sources are original first hand records or materials relating to an event or happening.
They may include, for example, official minutes of meetings, diaries, verbatim transcripts of interviews, completed
questionnaires or records of the results of experiments.

• Secondary sources are accounts bases upon these, which usually offer an interpretation, commentary, analysis, or
restatement of the primary sources. They can include, for example, books, journal articles, and conference papers.
• Validity: extent to which research findings can be said to be accurate and reliable; degree to which conclusions

are justified. Internal validity is extent to which researchers can show that they have evidence for the statements

they make; external validity refers to a study’s generalizability.

• Data:  factual information, collected through systematic methods, that is used as a basis for reasoning and

analysis of a phenomenon

• Field Studies: research studies carried out in natural settings, rather than in laboratories, classrooms, or other

structured environments.

• Focus Groups:  small, roundtable discussion groups charged with examining or discussing topics or problems

associated with a research project.  

• Participant observation:  a form of qualitative research that involves participating in the activities of the people

being observed as a way of developing an experience-near understanding of their behaviour and ideas.
• Reliability: the extent to which a research method yields consistent results.  If the
observational or measurement instrument is reliable, then administering it to similar
groups should yield similar results.

• Statistical Significance: in any experiment or observation that involves using a

sample from a population, statistical significance refers to the likelihood that a
behaviour or set of behaviours is due to chance.  The probability that the null
hypothesis can be rejected or accepted at a predetermined significance level of 0.05

• Theory:  a general explanation about a specific behaviour or set of events that is

based on known principles and serves to organize related events in a meaningful way.
• Deductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning and methodology is not as common as inductive reasoning with psychological
scientists. Deductive reasoning usually happens when a researcher observes something and believes it
to be a common response. The researcher would then develop a theory or conclusion and then work
to find evidence that supports or dismisses it.

• Inductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning is the more common way that scientists conduct experiments. Scientists have an
idea of something to study more in depth. Then collection of data through experiments, or
observations follow. With all of the data in hand, they analyze it to draw out conclusions.

Inductive reasoning is about collecting data and seeing what patterns or meaning can be extracted.
 Methods of Inquiry/ sources of human Knowledge
1. Tradition: Previously, most nursing actions are based on tradition, custom, and “unit culture” rather
than on sound evidence.

2. Authority: Authority is a quick and easy source of knowledge. However, as a source of knowledge,
authority has shortcomings that you must consider. First, authorities can be wrong. People often claim
to be experts in a fi eld when they do not really have the knowledge to back up the claim. Second, you
may find that authorities disagree among themselves on issues, indicating that their authoritative
statements are often more personal opinion than fact.

3. Experience is a functional source of knowledge.

4. Trial and error: Trial and error can be practical, but the method tends to be hazardous.

5. Research: Disciplined research is considered the best method of acquiring reliable knowledge that
humans have developed.
 Classification of Research
•Research can be classified into Qualitative
and Quantitative.

•While the silent third classification is

Mixed Method (the combination of the two
methods).
 Qualitative research
• Qualitative research is a process of naturalistic inquiry that seeks in-
depth understanding of social phenomena within their natural setting.
• It focuses on the "why" rather than the "what" of social phenomena and
relies on the direct experiences of human beings as meaning-making
agents in their every day lives.
 Types of Qualitative Data
• Interviews
• Observations
• Documents
 Types of Qualitative Data
• Interviews:
 Open-ended questions and probes yield in-depth responses about people’s
experiences, opinions, perceptions, feelings and knowledge.
 Data consist of verbatim (word for word) quotations with sufficient context to
be interpretable.
 Types of Qualitative Data cont.
• Observations: This can be Participant or Non-participant Observation
 Fieldwork descriptions of activities, behaviours, actions, conversations,
interpersonal interactions, organizational or community processes, or any other
aspect of observable human experience.

 Data consist of field notes: rich detailed descriptions, including the context
within which the observations were made.
 Types of Qualitative Data cont.
• Documents:
 Written materials and other documents, programs records; memoranda and
correspondence; official publications and reports; personal diaries, letters,
artistic works, photographs, and memorabilia; and written responses to open-
ended surveys.

 Data consist of extracts from documents captured in a way that records and
preserves context.
 What is Quantitative Research?

• Quantitative research is explaining phenomena by collecting numerical

data that are analysed using mathematically based methods (in
particular statistics)
• In order to be able to use mathematically based methods quantitative data
have to be in numerical form (This is not the case for qualitative
research).
 Types of Quantitative Research Design
• There are two main types of quantitative research design:
1. Experimental designs:
 Experimental designs are sometimes known as ‘the scientific method’ due to their popularity
in scientific research (natural sciences) where they originated.
 The researcher is able to manipulate, alter and control the predictor variable and subjects to
identify a cause-and-effect relationship.
 Usually conducted in the laboratory in which there must be an Experimental group
(manipulated group) and Placebo group (non-manipulated group)
 The experiment usually produces a high level of control and reliability
 Quantitative design Continued
2. Non-experimental designs:
 Non-experimental research is sometimes equated to survey research and is very common in the
social sciences.
 The researcher cannot control, manipulate or alter the predictor variable or subjects,
 Instead, the researcher relies on observation, interpretation, or interactions to come to a conclusion. 
 It relies on correlation, surveys or case studies
 No cause- and –effect relationship
 The experiment usually produces a high level of external validity i.e it can be generated to a larger
population.
 DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
1. Questionnaire: An instrument of data collection in quantitative research
 Consists of a number of questions that the respondent has to answer in a set format
(a distinction is made between open-ended and closed-ended questions).
 An open-ended question asks the respondent to formulate his own answer
(qualitative research), whereas a closed-ended question (quantitative
research)has the respondent to pick an answer from a given number of options
2. Surveys: Asking some set of questions to a very large group. (Mobile surveys,
online surveys, face-to face survey)
 General Differences Between Qualitative &
Quantitative Research Methods
• Qualitative • Quantitative
• Textual understanding of ideas • Numerical prediction of ideas
• Involving interviews/observations • Involving questionnaires/surveys
• Quality of information is more • Quality(reliability) of information is
important than sample size more dependent on sample size
• Qualitative data information is richer, • Quantitative data information is more
more time-consuming and less able to efficient, able to test hypothesis and
be generalized. very able to be generalized
 Major Differences Between Qualitative & Quantitative Research Methods.

  Quantitative Qualitative
 
Purpose To study relationships, cause and effect To explore a phenomenon as it is, it is rich
detail
 
Design Developed prior to study Flexible evolves during study
Approach Deductive; tests theory Inductive; may generate theory
 

Tools Uses preselected instruments: mostly The researcher is primary data collection tool;
questionnaire mostly interview guide
 
Sample Uses large samples Uses small samples
 
Analysis Statistical analysis of numeric data Narrative description and interpretation
 
 PURPOSES AND FUNCTIONS OF RESEARCH

1. Help to develop an idea for a clinical study;

2. Assist researchers by Collecting research information;

3. Offer advice to clients about participating in a study;

4. Solve a clinical problem by searching for research evidence;

5. Discuss the implications of a new study in practice setting, which involves meetings to discuss research articles.

6. Organize empirical findings and explain phenomena,

7. It predicts phenomena, and stimulate new research.

8. It enhances critical thinking

9. It provides adequate accountability

10. It helps in the generation of new data and knowledge

11. It helps to refine existing knowledge

12. It improves the quality of nursing practice

13. It reveals the gap in knowledge

14. It provides solutions to identified problems

15. It gives precise objective, objective, scientific, and systematic process of investigation
 Variables
• A variable is any characteristics, number, or quantity that can be measured
or counted. 
• A characteristic, number, or quantity that increases or decreases over time, or
takes different values in different situations. Two basic types ...1.Dependent
2. Independent
• Any value that is liable to change depending on conditions or information
passed across
• A variable is anything that can vary: changed or be changed time taken to
perform a task. 
 Cont.
• Variables are given a special name that only applies to experimental
investigations: Two main categories are recognized in this lecture.
One is called the dependent variable, and
The other the independent variable
 Cont.
• In an experiment, the researcher is looking for the possible effect on the
dependent variable that might be caused by changing the independent
variable:
 The independent variable is the variable the experimenter manipulates
(i.e. changes) – assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent
variable
 The dependent variable is the variable the experimenter measures in
their experiment. 
Cont.
Cont.