Global Chapter Two

CHAPTER TWO
Understanding Foreign Policy and Diplomacy
Global Affairs chapter Two by Endale A. (2021)

2.1. DEFINING NATIONAL INTEREST
It is the raison d'état, (the reason of state), to

justify its actions and policy towards other
states at international level
set of values, orientation, goals and
objectives a given country would like to
achieve in its international relations

 It related to an image and ambition of
governments, viz., what governments aspire to
full fill in its future interaction with others
It determines the contents of foreign policy.
N.B National Interest- National policy--
Foreign policy
 National interest is a subjective and dynamic
rather than an objective concept and static.

CRITERIA USED IN DEFINING NATIONAL
INTEREST
1. Operational
philosophy,
2. Moral and legal
3. Pragmatic
4. Ideological
5. Professional
advancement

CRITERIA USED IN DEFINING NATIONAL
INTEREST
6.Partisan
7. Bureaucratic-
interest
8. ethnic/racial
9. Class-status
10. Foreign –dependency

Criteria for determining national interest of
states Colmbis (1984: 82-87). has provided a
multiplicity of criteria used in defining national
interest such as:
1. Operational Philosophy
It Depending on:
1) Time
2) Location
3) Orientation toward the world around us,
4) The action of your predecessor
CONT.
Depending on the above 4 elements, one may
choose one of two major style of operation.
i). Act in a bold and sweeping (synoptic )
Act in a bold and sweeping (wide-ranging and
comprehensive) fashion up on:
a) Taking office
b) Introduce major new practices
c) Policies and institutions
d) Institutions and discontinue others..

 In this operation, the decision maker assumes
that he/she has enough information about an
important issue to develop a major policy
with some confidence that its consequence
can be predicted or controlled.

CONT…
ii) Caution (Carefulness or deliberation) style
of operation (incremental )
• act in caution,
• Probing (inquiring),
• experimental fashion,
• following the trial and error approach.

The decision maker assumes that political
and economic problems are too complex to
proceed with bold initiative without worrying
about their consequence.
Thus the incrementalist usually seeks to
perfect existing legislations, policies,
institutions and practices.

2. IDEOLOGICAL CRITERIA:
Making relationships based on:-
Identifying their friends or enemies countries using the
litmus test of ideology.
Thus, national interest may be shaped by underlying
ideological orientations of the regime in power.

3. MORAL AND LEGAL CRITERIA
I. Acting morally means States are expected:
1) acting honestly
2) Making based on public decision
3) Keeping their promise-treaties, living and
letting others live (the poor and the
disadvantaged)
4) Avoiding exploitation and uneven development

5. Widely accepted principles of culture
II. Acting legally means:
 States are abiding by the rules of international
law.

3.PRAGMATIC CRITERIA:
As pragmatist view, decisions are made based on:
1. Matter of fact or reality, not on emotions and
professions.
2. Issues and events around us without considering
normative issues.
• Act On the basis of the scientific analysis of cost
and benefit or merit and demerit to your
country interest

4. PROFESSIONAL
ADVANCEMENT CRITERIA:
Depend on personal success i.e action may be
manipulated and adjusted in consideration of
your professional survival and growth.
 i.e Conceders Knowledge, Skill and Capacity
of Policy makers.

5. PARTISAN CRITERIA:
• Decisions are made based on survival and
the success of:
 Political party
 Ethnic
 religious origin with the survival and
success of the country.

6. FOREIGN DEPENDENCY CRITERIA
These criteria usually applies to less

developing countries, who had fallen under the
yoke of colonialism kept the colonial ties with
their ex-masters intact

These countries are still dependent on their ex-
colonial states for:
Technical aid,
Expertise
Technology,
 for their security.
Governments in these countries are therefore
heavily dependent on the support of the outside
powers, sometimes
, for their survival.
As a result the less developing countries face
difficulties to defend and promote their
national interest.

REALISTS CRITERIA FOR
DETERMINING NATIONAL
INTEREST.
Realist international scholars like Morgenthau advised
pragmatism and practical necessity should be the guiding
principle, of foreign policy of state.
 since IR system is anarchical , NI is pursuits of Power
(diplomacy or coercion)
 Power is a means for achieving and promoting the interest of state
i.e survival and security.
Therefor, NI, in the competitive and anarchic
international environment must be objectively
defined to ensure survival and safety of a state
than to talk about justice and morality.
 In order to addressing global problems focus
on state-centric particularism.

 A good diplomat according to Morgenthau is
a rational diplomat i.e s/he is a prudent (wise)
diplomat.
Morgenthau also warns leaders of states to be
cautious enough in calculating the range and
scope of their countries NI.
The scope of national interest and their foreign
policy should be proportional to their
capabilities- BEING PRUDENTS.

IDEALISTS ‘ CRITERIA OF NI
Have strong belief in the relevance of legal,
ideological and moral to recognize as the
constituting elements of NI and FP.
They don‘t see legal and moral factors apart
from the ”reality”
Moral and legal guidelines and principles
specific actions and objective of foreign
policy

So, NI reflects the marriage of different criteria
that include:
 legal and moral criteria,
 ideological criteria and
 prudence or
pragmatism-practical necessities on the
ground.

Idealists believe on the prevalence of common
problems of human beings as:
 environmental pollution,
 ecological imbalance,
 depletion of resource,
 population growth,
 poverty,
 war,
 arms race,
 uneven development and
 the north-south gap…etc.
CONT…
 Cognizant of such cross-cutting issues,
idealists call for global solutions than local
(national) solutions.
 The establishment of new institutions with
global orientation may play vital role in
addressing global problems.

 However, REALISTS fail to recognize and
prescribe solutions for addressing global
problems because of the exclusive emphasis
given to state and national interest


2.2. UNDERSTANDING FOREIGN POLICY
AND FOREIGN POLICY BEHAVIORS
2.2.1 Definition of Foreign Policy
 It refers to the sets of objectives and instruments that
a state adopts to guide its relation with the outside
world.
 the set of priorities and percepts (something
perceived) established by national leaders to serve as
guidelines for choosing among various courses of
action in specific situations in international affairs‖
 National interest is the objectives of FP
2.2.2. Foreign Policy Objectives
The classifications of foreign policy objectives is based

on the combination of the following three criteria:
(1) The value placed on the objective
(2) The time element placed on its achievement
(3) The kind of demands the objective imposes on
other states in international system.

 The objectives Foreign policy can be classified as:-
1) Core values and interests
2) middle range goals
3) universal long range goals-
1. Core Interests and Values (Short Range Objectives)
• It is the most essential objective of any foreign
policy
 Preservation of Security and survival of a state
 To ensure the sovereignty and independence of the
home territory

 Preservation of physical identity i.e maintenance
of the territorial integrity of a state.
Frequently related to the self preservation of:
 political and economic systems,
 the people and its culture,
 the territorial integrity of a state

 preservation of cultural identity i.e ethnic,
religious, and linguistic and historical norms
of the peoples residing in the state
Features of Short Range Objectives
 Must be preserved or extended at all time
 Most people are willing to make ultimate
sacrifices
 society accepts without any questioning it
E.g Still to day countries such as Israel and the
United States pursue and follow extra-
territoriality policies.
Middle Range Objectives
• To take a course of actions that have the
highest impact on the domestic economic and
welfare needs and expectation.
• This would include the attempts of
government to meet economic-betterment
demands and needs through international
action or in interdependence but not self help.

CONT…
In short Social welfare and economic
development is the Middle Range
Objectives.

LONG- RANGE OBJECTIVES
These are objectives aiming at restructuring the
international system.
are the ambitions that the states may achieve in the
distant future.
the plans and dreams of a state that an ideology
forms to establish the international system of its own
liking.
They have no time restrictions-indefinite and are
vague i.e. nothing can be ascertained regarding the
outcome of the pursuit, so they are unpredictable as
well Global Affairs chapter Two by Endale A. (2021)
LONG- RANGE OBJECTIVES
Example: can be expanding socialism or
liberalism.
 Long-range goals are plans, dreams and visions
concerning the ultimate political or ideological
organization of the international system, and
rules governing relations in that system.
 Long-range visions and dreams may have
international repercussions (consequences) as far
as they are complemented by the capabilities and
powers.
2.2.3. FOREIGN POLICY BEHAVIOR:
PATTERNS/TRENDS, DIMENSION
 Foreign Policy Behavior refers to the actions states
take towards each other.
 Actions usually are tied with larger purposes, from
long range objectives to short term objectives that
leaders hope to achieve in their dealings with other
countries.
 According to Arnold Wolfers, all foreign policy
behavior patterns ultimately boils down to three
possible patterns:
CONT…
self-
(2) self-extension abnegation
self-preservation
(revising the status (revising the
(maintaining the
quo in one‘s own status quo in
status quo);
favor) some else‘s
favor).

1) SELF-PRESERVATION
 It is maintaining the status quo) e.g
• United States can be categorized as self-
preservation. Following second world War
emerged as one of the strongest actor, super
power in international relations.
• This country can shape, the international
institutions’- UN, IMF, WB, GATT/WTO) that
were established following Second World War
CONT…
Decision making procedures of these
institutions are all shaped to serve the global
interests USA
Even the United Nations has been serving the
interest of United State as the country has key
position in the Security Council as one of Veto
power

2) SELF-EXTENSION
 (revising the status quo in one‘s own favor) e.g
• The newly emerging powers such as China, India,

Brazil, Germany and others are competing to
restructure the international institutions and
different regimes so as to create enabling
environment to promote their national interest.
3. SELF-ABNEGATION
Self-abnegation is self denying/restriction
(revising the status quo in some else‘s favor).
Self-abnegation reflects the foreign policy trends
that are being displayed in Less Developing
Countries (LDC).

 The weak states of the world which fail to defend
and promote their national interests in their external
relations.
 Such countries focus on temporary and immediate
benefits rather than long lasting national interest.
along a number of specific dimensions such as:-

2.2.4 FOREIGN POLICY
BEHAVIOR: DIMENSIONS
Foreign Policy behavior can change over
time and with different style of leaderships
and circumstances.
The analysis of foreign policy behavior can
be done

DIMENSIONS ARE:
FP Dimensions
Alignment, scope
Modus operandi
Alliance Global
Multilateral
Neutrality Regional
Bilateral
Nonalignment Isolationism.
unilateral
2.2.4. 1. ALIGNMENT
 National leaders choose to ally with certain countries or to
remain neutral.
 A country‘s alignment behavior can vary from time to time
during its history in response to changing circumstances and
policy decisions.
 The tendencies of alignment are alliance, neutrality and
non-alignment.

A. ALLIANCES:
• are formal agreements to provide mutual

military assistance; as such, they carry legal
weight and certain benefits as well as risks.

B. NEUTRALITY
• is a stance of formal non partisanship in world affairs.
countries can tilt towards one side or another in some
strategic issues
E.g Switzerland is one country that has carried neutrality to an
extreme case in refusing membership to United Nations till
2002.
state or states tend to side with on key issues,

CONT…
without necessarily becoming part of
formal alliance.
For example, Israel, which is not a formal
ally of U.S, has sided with the United States
on many issues.

C. NON-ALIGNMENT:-
The term nonalignment is of post-1945
origin.
 It is an independent policy that does not
associate itself with the so-called communist
and non-communist blocs.
 It is a policy of keeping out of alliances
because the alliances and counter-alliances
may breed tension and ultimately lead to
disaster.
C. NON-ALIGNMENT:-
favorable structure of power and influence in
the system,
national capacity to defend the independence
and territorial integrity against those who do
not honor a neutral position,
the benevolent attitude or indifference of the
great powers,

C. NON-ALIGNMENT:-
reasonable remoteness from the main centers
of international conflicts, and
a reasonable amount of internal political
stability.

2.2.4. 2. SCOPE
 Some countries have extensive, far-reaching
international contacts, while other countries have
more limited activities abroad.
 Based on the scope, a state has in international
relations, one can identify at least three patterns
of foreign policy behaviors.
1. Some actors act in Global terms e.g U.S.A and
China have often defined their national interest in
global terms.
2. OTHERS ACT IN REGIONAL TERMS
e.g South Africa is a regional actor in Africa in general and

in Southern Africa in Particular. It is the most important
actor in regional organizations such as SADDIC and AU.
India can also be considered as the most important actor in
South Asian region geographic remoteness, may cause the
scope of a country‘s

2.2.4.3. ISOLATIONISM
Some moments in history, such as key weakness or
foreign policy to become so narrow that isolationism
results. This was the case with Burma in 1960 and 70s.
Some of the known global actors such as:

 United States of America
 China
 ex-USSR etc

all have passed through period of relative
isolationism and of mainly regional interests,
finally branching out in to global concerns.

MODE OF OPERATION/ “MODUS
OPERNADI’
Some countries often rely on multilateral institutions
to address different issues.
They seek solutions for their problems through
diplomatic forums in which several states participate
e.g UN.
Most developing countries
 Germany and Most Scandinavian countries used the
multilateral approaches.

The multilateral forum would enhance the collective barraging
power of these countries.
 On the other hand some other Countries have strong economic
and military muscle i.e Most developed Countries very much
rely on uni-lateral or Bi-lateral means to settle their problems.
 They play the carrot (Give reward and aid) and stick (threat
of use of force) diplomacy to affect the outcomes of events.

They may choose to solve the problems by
themselves or country to country approaches.
Unilateral means. They may choose to solve the
problems by themselves.

2.2.5 INSTRUMENTS OF FOREIGN
POLICY
Generally refer to the means or mechanisms
used by states in conducting their relation with
other states.
These instruments include:

1) Diplomacy, Trade
2) Economic Foreign aid
3) Military Economic sanctions.
4) Psychological

2.2.5 INSTRUMENTS OF FOREIGN
POLICY
2.2.5.1. Diplomacy
 It Has probably existed for as long as
civilization
It is a system of structured communication
between two or more parties
It is a process between actors who exist
within a system,

2.2.5.1 DIPLOMACY
It can promote exchanges that enhance
trade, culture, wealth and. Knowledge
 it is not foreign policy but it is a part of
foreign policy.
It is a complex game of maneuver in which
the goal is to influence the behaviors of
others in one’s interest.

2.2.5.1 DIPLOMACY
the essence of diplomacy remains to
bargain.
1. Old style diplomacy
lacked many of the characteristics and
commonalities of modern diplomacy such as
embassies, international law and professional
diplomatic services.

CONT…
In basic terms, a state‘s foreign policy has two
key ingredients;
1. Its actions:- The interaction one state has with another
2. its strategies for achieving its goals:-

CONT…
States make considerable use “carrot and stick‖”
approaches when they rely on such diplomatic
tactics such as threats, punishment, promise, and
rewards.
Stick approach:- Threats and punishment
Carrot approach:- promise and reward

CONT…
 It is practiced in a formalistic and somewhat rigid manner
e.g 1. Closed and secret diplomacy
2. Bilateral diplomacy
2. Modern form of diplomacy
• After WWI and the formation of the League of Nations, the
old style of diplomacy has been drastically reformed.
• The characteristics and commonalities of modern
diplomacy such as embassies, international law and
professional diplomatic services.

1. Multilateral diplomacy,
2. public diplomacy,
3. leader-to-leader (summitry) diplomacy
 The essence of all forms of diplomacy remains
to bargain.
 Bargaining is a means of settling differences over
priorities between contestants through an exchange
of proposals for mutually acceptable solutions.

CONT…
 Diplomatic bargaining is used primarily to
reach agreements, compromises, and
settlements where governments
objectives conflict.

RULES OF EFFECTIVE DIPLOMACY
The following are some of the basic rules
that diplomats have employed with greater
effectiveness over the years:

CONT…
 Be realistic: to have the ability to achieve
one’s goal
 Be careful about what you say: plan out
and weigh words carefully.
Seek common ground: Dispute begins
negotiations
Understand the other side:
Be patient: To bide time

CONT…
Leave avenues of retreat open: Leave escape routes
available:
 Call it honor, saving face, or prestige
In general, states make considerable carrot and stick‖

approaches when they rely on such diplomatic tactics as
threats, punishment(represent the stick approach), and
(promise and reward) represent the carrot approach.

2.2.5.2 ECONOMY AS INSTRUMENT
It can be used almost simultaneously to reward one
state and punish another.
This instrument has the following purposes:-
1) to achieve any foreign policy objective by
exploiting need and dependence, and offering
economic rewards, or threats, ending or imposing
economic punishments;

2) to increase a state‘s capability or deprive a
potential enemy‘s capabilities
3) to create economic satellites (guaranteed markets
and resources of supply) or help maintain political
obedience in satellites by creating a relationship of
economic dependence.

When rewards are offered or economic
punishment is threatened, at least two
conditions must be fulfilled to make the exercise
of influence effective:
a) Target of the influence or act must perceive
that there is a genuine need for the reward or
for the avoidance of the punishment
b) No alternative market or source of supply must
be easily available to the target.
• The specific techniques that can be used to reward
or punish constitute economic instruments. Such
as:
• Tariffs,
• quotas, as punishing instrument
• boycotts
• Embargos

• Loans,
• credits, rewarding
• currency manipulation
A) Tariff:
• Almost all foreign-made products coming into a
country are taxed for the purpose of:
1) Raising revenue
2) Protecting domestic producers from foreign
competition
QUOTA
To control imports of some commodities, governments
may establish quotas rather than tariffs.
A government limits:
1. Items of goods and commodities
2. Amount of goods and commodities
3. Time period to sell commodities
BOYCOTT/NOT BUYING
Withdraw from commercial or social relations
with (a country, organization, or person) as a
punishment or protest.
 a government eliminates
1. The import of either a specific commodity or
2. The total range of export products sold by the
country

EMBARGO
 an order of a government prohibiting the
departure of commercial ships from its
ports
a legal prohibition on commerce

EMBARGO
A government that seeks to deprive another
country of goods prohibits its own businessmen
from concluding its transactions with the
commercial organization in the country.
• An embargo may be enforced either on a specific
category of goods or on the total range of goods.
EMBARGO

CONT…
Loans, Credits and Currency

Manipulations:
 The manipulation of currency rates i.e create
more or less favorable terms of trade
between countries.

 Granting loans i.e favorable rewards offered
by the major powers to developing countries.
Foreign Aid: The transfer of money, goods, or
technical advice from donor to recipient is an
instrument of policy that has been in
international relations.

TYPE OF AID PROGRAMS
1) Military and technical assistance aids
2) Grants and commodity import program
and
3) Development aids
4) Humanitarian aid

3) MILITARY INSTRUMENTS
This involves the use of force, terrorist attack,
and military coercion in conducting foreign
policy objectives of states.

3) MILITARY INSTRUMENTS
The most important role of the this instrument is
that of providing a background of assurance
and stability for diplomacy.
Because of its violent nature, it is often used as a
last resort when, for instance, diplomacy and
other mechanisms of achieving peaceful
settlement of disputes failed.

4) PSYCHOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS
refers to the various attempts and means by which
governments influence the minds and emotions of
people in other states.
Are used to appeal to people rather than to
government.
One of the most used psychological instruments is
propaganda.

PROPAGANDA
is a systemic method of influencing the minds and
emotions of the people for a specific purpose.
It refers to the manipulation and distortion of
information in order to achieve one’s interest and
defeat the interest of an opponent.

PROPAGANDA
It is used to make a favorable image of oneself and
an unfavorable image of others.
It is also used to persuade others to see things in
one's way.
This can be done through radio, film, pamphlets,
and other instruments for creating a favorable
image for a country's foreign policy objectives.

PROPAGANDA
Basically, there are two types of propaganda,
namely;
1) External
2) Internal
External propaganda is one in which countries
image could be projected badly or favorably
outside the country and within the international
realm.

PROPAGANDA
This is done with the intention of making such a
country take a defined course of action.
2) Internal propaganda is done within a nation-
state on issues that are domestic nature or an
issue that deals with domestic policy and
decisions.

2.3. OVERVIEW OF FOREIGN POLICY OF
ETHIOPIA
Throughout its long history, Ethiopia has been
in many ways connected to the outside world.
Trade and cultural interaction flourished with
the countries of the Mediterranean basin and
around the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, the
Indian sub-continent, and possibly China.
These contacts were for the most part
transnational rather than interstate.
2.3.1. FOREIGN POLICY DURING
TEWODROS II (1855-1868)
He designed a foreign policy that would help him
unify his domain and consolidate his power in
relation to others.
Throughout his reign, he tried to develop a dynamic
foreign policy that reached out beyond the Horn of
Africa region.
He distinguished Christians and Muslims, i.e. he
considered Christians as friends (Russia, France,
and Britain) because:-
TEWODROS II (1855-1868)
to assist him in whatever ways possible in his fight
against the Turks, Egyptians, and Islam
to keep producing (not importing) local military
weapons and wanted to be independent
and Muslims as enemies (Turkish and Egyptians, and
Islam).
He used Christianity as an instrument of foreign policy
Sovereignty and reciprocity (interchange) in diplomacy
become fundamental principles of his foreign policy.

YOHANNES IV (1872-1889)
As a personality and as a ruler, Yohannes
highly differed from Tewodros.
 Yohannes was more patient and less
impulsive (acting suddenly without thinking
carefully about what might happen because
of what you are doing ) than his predecessor.

Although both envisioned a united, Christian
Ethiopia, their approaches were in contrast.
Yohannes valued order more highly than the
rigid centralization that had characterized
Tewodros’s rule.
Yohannes pursued an active and cunning
foreign policy similar to Tewodros II and even
more acute than Tewodros.
The Hewitt (Adwa) Treaty
It was signed on 3 June 1884 between Rear
Admiral William Hewitt (a British envoy) with
Emperor Yohannes of Ethiopia.
 There was turmoil between Ethiopia and Egypt at
that moment.
 Hewitt came to negotiate peace on the behalf of
Egypt.

This treaty was signed not only to negotiate peace
but also because there was Egyptian soldiers
trapped in the areas along the Ethio-Sudanese
border.
The treaty also included these articles which dealt
with:

1) Free transit for Ethiopia through the port of
Massawa for all goods including firearms.
2) Restoration to Ethiopia of Bogos and other
regions with their buildings, stores, and
munitions, and

3) Ethiopian agreement to help in the safe
evacuation of the trapped Egyptian army via
Massawa.
Yohannes faced strong external challenges from
Mahdists Sudanese and Italians.
It was also a time of heightened European
interest in Africa as a base for colonial
expansion.

Although Yohannes considered Islam a threat, he
saw European expansionism as an even greater
threat to Ethiopia’s political survival.

At one point, Yohannes even made an abortive (failed)
attempt to form an alliance with the Mahdists against
a potential European incursion (invasion).
When these countries were not ready to solve their
differences peacefully with Yohannes, he conducted
wars and won the battle of Dogali, Saiti, Gundet,
and Gura.
In 1889, the battle with Mahdists in Metema
culminated his life.
MENELIK II (1889-93)
Menelik started conducting relations with the European
powers, especially the Italians when he was king of
Shewa, Emperor Yohannes’s serious competitor.
In 1889, after the death of Yohannes, Menelik II and
the Italians concluded the Wuchale Treaty in the small
town of Wuchale, what is now Wollo Province.
The treaty generally guaranteed a measure of security
and trading privileges to both Ethiopia and Italy.

MENELIK II (1889-93)
However, Article XVII in the Italian version of the
treaty, which essentially implied that Ethiopia was
a protectorate (territory) of Italy, created
disagreements between Menelik and the Italians.
Menelik’s diplomatic efforts to solve this problem
failed and the battle of Adowa erupted in 1896.
The Italians were resoundingly defeated at the battle
with more than 35 percent of their troops being
killed.

CONT…
The Ethiopian victory at Adowa sent shock waves
throughout Europe and caused the reigning Italian
government to fall.
 For the first time, the European powers realized that
Ethiopia was an African power to be reckoned with.
Britain, France, Russia, and Italy flocked to
Menelik’s court in order to arrange the exchange of
ambassadors and to conclude diplomatic
agreements.

CONT…
Britain, France, and Italy signed treaties
with Menelik to demarcate the frontiers
between their colonial possessions and
Ethiopia.
The treaties established Menelik’s exclusive
rights to the territories bordering the colonial
possessions claimed by these powers.

CONT…
Sudanese Mahdists sought to stabilize
relations with Ethiopia at this time.
Thus, it was clear that the emperor was gifted
with considerable diplomatic expertise,
playing off one power against the other as
pawns (person/group whose power is
controlled by more powerful people) in an
effort to secure the sovereignty of his country.
CONT…
Furthermore, Menelik established modern institutions of
administration after the battle of Adwa.
In 1900, he established a council of ministers composed of nine
ministries, including the Ministry of Commerce and Foreign
Affairs, as an institution to execute the country’s foreign relations.
Ethiopia’s foreign relations at that time were more of foreign
trade and this might have influenced the emperor’s decision of
combining the two ministries together.
Naggadras Haile Giyorgis, a traditional person with no modern
education, was appointed as the first Minister of Commerce
and Foreign Affairs.

CONT…
The main task of the ministry was to deal with
guests and to talk with other states and
ministers.
Yet, it did not have the power to enter into
an agreement with its counterparts.
The duties of the ministry were divided into
four categories;

FOUR DUTIES OF THE MINISTRY
1) To talk about consular relations with other
countries,
2) To talk about relations with other states and
ministers,
3) To deliver passports to foreigners who live in
Ethiopia, and
4) To translate books, newspapers, and journals
into Amharic.
The level of development of diplomacy, and
Diplomatic representation abroad during the reign
of Menelik was limited due to a lack of
educated manpower and a lack of
understanding about the role of foreign policy.
Though the first and only consul was opened in
Djibouti in 1897, there were neither permanent
legations nor embassies established abroad.
At that time, foreign relations were conducted
through a delegation system of representations.

Different delegations were sent to various countries to
negotiate on various issues and to promote the country’s
national interest.
For instance, a delegation led by Fitawurari Damtew
Ketema was sent to Russia in 1895, presented Menelik’s
letter to the Czar of Russia, and discussed bilateral issues.
Besides, there was no written foreign policy document that
guide the country’s relations with other countries.
The Emperor made a foreign policy decision in a
pragmatic way according to the need of the time in
consultation with close advisors.
He followed “largely defensive and survivalist foreign
policy”.

Emperor Menelik II fell ill in 1906 and very soon he
was totally incapacitated.
His illness and the anticipated death alarmed a bitter
struggle among different factions for succession
domestically.
The situation created internally soon affected relations
with the powers ruling the adjacent territories.
Britain, Italy, and France agreed to cooperate in
the event of Ethiopia’s disintegration and possible
territorial rearrangement in their own interests.

2.3.4. FOREIGN POLICY DURING EMPEROR
HAILE SELASSIE I (1916-1974)
A. Pre-Italian Occupation Period
Ethiopia’s foreign relations began to take modern
shape under Haileselassie I.
It is during his period that permanent
representations have begun and diplomatic
missions were opened in many countries.
He was dedicated to the creation of a stronger, more
modern bureaucratic empire with unquestioned
respect in the world community.
When he was the heir to the throne from 1917-1930, Teferi
vastly utilized diplomacy for building his image abroad,
and in related matters of prestige and foreign affairs.
In 1923, Teferi engineered Ethiopia’s entry into the League
of Nations.
He wrote to the League for reconsideration of Ethiopia’s
membership and after lots of deliberations, the country
was admitted to membership, by a unanimous (agreed)
vote at the General Assembly. Ethiopia’s admission to the
League had three advantages:

1) It helped Teferi to pursue energetically his policy of
domestic reforms, raised his popularity nationally
and internationally ,and increased his power base;
2) It exposed the country to world politics as peace-
loving and committed to collective security as a
guiding foreign policy principle; and
3) At least in a relative sense, it protected the country
from colonization that could have been pursued by
the neighboring colonial powers.

Teferi also undertook a grand tour in 1924
accompanied by a large retinue of noblemen
and visited Palestine, Egypt, France, Belgium,
Holland, Sweden, Italy, England, Switzerland,
and Greece.
Although he did not attain his objective of an
outlet to the sea, he came back with his and the
country’s international stature (figure)
increased, and his commitment to introduce a
European way of administration strengthened.

He reshuffled the ministerial system - he
dismissed all ministers except the war
minister, added new ministries, and assigned a
secretary general as his aid.
Foreign advisers were recruited to organize
the ministries and advise the appointees.
This has enabled him to run foreign relations
personally and manipulate the benefits of
foreign policy to his own ends.

Following his accession (the act of becoming the
ruler of the country) to the throne in October
1930, Emperor Haileselassie I began in earnest
(very serious and sincere) to lay the groundwork
for the development of a modern foreign service.
In 1931, Haileselassie I promulgated (to
announce new law officially) the first written
constitution by which in Art. 14 he took into his
hands all power of diplomacy and foreign
policy.

Furthermore, the decree that was published on
Negarit Gazeta No.5 order 1/1935 stipulated the
duties and powers of the Minister of Foreign
Affairs.
None of the Articles and Sub-articles provided the
Ministry with real power to conduct foreign
relations.
The Ministry remained important but vested with
residuary power to coordinate minor foreign
activities such as financial and administrative
issues with the consent of the Emperor.
He regulated foreign activities by:
 requiring entry visas for visitors,
registration for commercial firms operating in
Ethiopia
the licensing of all lawyers appearing in the
special court that handle cases between
nationals and aliens.
The Emperor was controlling the foreign relations
of the ministry and the routine management of
day-to-day activities of the ministry.

B. POST-LIBERATION PERIOD
Following the liberation (after 1941) of the country,
Ethiopia’s foreign relations have expanded and started
taking better shape.
The organizational structure of the ministry has expanded
and its duties increased.
Many embassies, consulates, liaison offices, and
legations were opened in different countries.
Nevertheless, the professional qualification as well as the
number of workers with the necessary skill and knowledge
were greatly lacking in contrast to the structure.

Though liberated from the shackles of fascism, Ethiopia
remained under the protectorate of Britain not to pursue an
independent foreign policy.
The British government that allied with Ethiopia in the
common struggle against fascist Italy dominated the aftermath
of the country’s political independence.
British imperialism in Ethiopia completely controlled and
embezzled the country’s economic, financial and industrial
resources.
Britain totally controlled Ethiopia’s:
 import and export;
 the railway from Djibouti to Addis Ababa;
 Ethiopian access to shipping.

Therefore, the priority of Haileselassie’s
foreign policy objective at the time was to
guarantee the independence of the county and
to oust (overthrow) the British from the
country.
Haileselassie continued to elicit American
interest in every aspect of Ethiopia’s
development.
Gradually America’s strategic interest in
Ethiopia grew.
On the other hand, Britain had to address its
internal economic problems and social discontent
that forced the labor government to give
precedence to social security at home over the
need of imperial security abroad.
It was not even in a position to cover the cost of
the British Military Mission in Ethiopia (BMME).
Hence, the British hegemony in Ethiopia came to
an end in 1950 giving way to the ascendancy
(domination) of Ethio-American relations.

In 1945, Haileselassie met with President Roosevelt
of USA in Egypt.
They discussed the strategy of their future foreign
policies.
USA’s foreign policy was mainly interested in the
containment of communism in Europe and its
possible expansion to Africa.
Thus, Ethiopia was treated as a significant ally of
the US because of its proximity to the Middle East,
the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Aden, the Indian
Ocean, and the Red Sea.
The Ethio-US relations were based on Ethiopia
providing America with a communication base
- the issue of strategy.
The Kagnew Station, a military base located in
Eritrea served as a center for all US air and
space operations.
Since then, the US government showed greater
interest in Ethiopia and continued to provide
the government with increased economic and
technical assistance.
The Emperor also had a keen (sstrong) interest to see a
strong army of his own, and he wanted a strong military
relationship with the US to achieve his goal.
In 1953, the two countries signed a mutual defense
agreement, which attached the US Military Assistance
Advisory Group (MAAG) to the Ethiopian Ministry of
Defense.
The MAAG heralded that the US took the
responsibility to establish and strengthen the Ethiopian
military establishment.
The assistance enabled the Emperor to suppress the
internal rebel groups.

The period from the 1950s to 1960s was witnessed as a
period where Ethiopia’s foreign policy was mainly targeted
at gaining access to the sea and restoration of Eritrea.
To achieve this goal, the government used the US as one
of the world superpowers to play the game on its behalf.
The US played a determining role in the multilateral and
bilateral forums in order to enable Ethiopia to get Eritrea
and have an access to the sea.
The US tried to influence the General Assembly of the
United Nations, it employed every possible means of
diplomatic maneuver to satisfy the interest of Ethiopia in
having Eritrea.

The amicable (friendly) Ethio-US relations began to
deteriorate (decline) in the 1960s due to the following reasons;
With the development of satellite technology, Ethiopia’s
strategic importance to America began to be less important.
USA’s reluctance (hesitancy) with regard to supporting
Haileselassie in the conflict with Somalia because it feared
that supporting Ethiopia means losing Somalia to the Soviet
bloc.
Ethiopia’s visit to Moscow; in 1959, the Emperor was
visiting Moscow for about two weeks and got some
assistance and USSR pledged to construct the Assab
refinery. This event was a headache for the US.
The 1960 coup d’état attempt against Haileselassie indicated
the weakening of the Emperor.
C. FOREIGN POLICY PRINCIPLES
OF EMPEROR HAILESELASSIE I
1. The principle of collective security:
was one of the first guiding principles of the
Ethiopian foreign policy enunciated by
Haileselassie at the League of Nations.
Despite the unjust treatment of Ethiopia by
the League of Nations during the fascist
aggression, the Emperor remained ever loyal to
the principle of collective security.
C. FOREIGN POLICY PRINCIPLES
OF EMPEROR HAILESELASSIE I
He actively participated in and supported the
establishment and the collective security
actions of the United Nations.
Ethiopia was the only African country that sent
troops and participated in the UN’s collective
security duties in Korea and Congo.

2. Peaceful co-existence with neighbors and peaceful
resolution of international conflicts:
3. Building strong defense capacity:
The Emperor had a strong interest to maintain strong
military power.
He organized modern armed forces that were observed
to be the best in Africa where the Ethiopians handled
the maintenance of the military machines dominantly.
He devoted about 20 percent of the country’s budget
to military modernization.

4. Non-alignment:
The basic objective of this principle was to diversify aid
and to change the country’s image of being identified
with the western world, in particular with the USA.
5. Pan-Africanism:
Ethiopia has been the “silent servant of the leaders of the
African liberation movement’’.
The repeated victory of Ethiopia over the colonial powers
boosted the morale of the colonized African people.
Ethiopia not only served the African cause, it also overtly
identified itself with the continent.

2.3.5. FOREIGN POLICY DURING THE
MILITARY GOVERNMENT (1974—1991)
The primary objectives of the foreign policy
were:-
1) the survival of the regime and maintaining
the territorial integrity of the country.
2) Restructuring the society along socialist
lines was also considered the foundation for
the foreign policy motives at home.

2.3.5. FOREIGN POLICY DURING THE
MILITARY GOVERNMENT (1974—1991)
The major strategy to achieve the stated objectives
heavily focused on building the military capability of
the country.
And force had been employed as the best strategy to
silence dissent at home and deter the perceived
external enemies of the country.
Friendship and alliance with socialist countries of the
world were considered a viable strategy for realizing
socialism at home and perhaps in the world.

Ethiopia’s strategic locations (being located
in the Horn of Africa is at the crossroads to the
oil-rich Middle East region and the Indian
Ocean.) and other questions, such as;
Eritrea, Somalia, and the issue of the Nile,
had also shaped the foreign policy orientation
and behavior of military government.
With regard to Africa’s broader issues of
decolonization and anti-Apartheid struggle,
Ethiopia played a significant role.

The regime had extended its military and technical
support to Freedom fighters in Angola and Rhodesia.
The regime had also shown its solidarity with
Palestine’s cause by condemning Israel and seeking
political allegiance with the Arab world, however, the
negative perception that most Arab countries have
towards Ethiopia remained unchanged.
Finally, the regime collapsed following the end of the
cold war unable to survive in the absence of military
aid from the socialist blocs, USSR, and Cuba.

2.3.6. THE FOREIGN POLICY OF
ETHIOPIA IN THE POST 1991
The EPRDF government had to respond to
domestic and international changes to stay in
power.
the foreign policy concerns of EPRDF right up
on coming to power were:

A. Peace and security at the domestic scene and sub-
regional levels particularly with the neighboring
countries; and
B. the need to change the attitudes of neighbors
towards the new policy measures taken by EPRDF.
Accordingly, the regime pursued the following
diplomatic measures to change the attitude of
neighboring countries:

a) An invitation of state leaders to visit Addis Ababa
and reciprocate them. A good instance was when
Sudan visited Ethiopia perhaps the first to visit
Ethiopia after the downfall of the military regime.
b)Signing of treaties of friendship and cooperation
with neighboring countries

c) Abolition of the visa requirement for nationals of
the neighboring countries. This was done to
restore the positive image of the Ethiopian state
d) Stopping supporting the insurgencies of
neighboring countries. This means the regime was
attempting to show the gesture of not interfering
and destabilizing the neighboring countries.

Ethiopian foreign policy has been characterized by
active involvement in various African affairs such as:
the African common market,
the OAU/AU conflict prevention and
management mechanisms,
the African peacekeeping issues,
the anti-apartheid struggle in South Africa,
the issues in the Horn of Africa.
the effort to diversify the country’s foreign
relation partners-west and east
The FDRE constitution in Article 89 puts the
following as guiding principles to the country’s
foreign policy. These are:
1) Promoting values of mutual respect for national
sovereignty and equality of states and non-
interference in the internal affairs of other states.
2) Observing international agreements which
ensure respect for the country’s sovereignty and
hence are not contrary to the interests of its
people

3) Forging (to put a lot of effort into making sth
successful/strong) and promoting an ever-
growing economic union and fraternal
relations of peoples within Ethiopia’s
neighbors and other African countries.
4) Seeking for and supporting to peaceful
solutions to international disputes… etc

In line with the above-said principles, the FDRE
government has issued a new foreign policy document
in 2002.
The document thus identifies Ethiopia’s foreign policy
priorities as:
⁕ Promoting relationships of peace and security with
other countries
⁕ Serving the economic development needs,
economic policies and objectives of the country
⁕ Defining realistic goals of development and
democratization on the basis of the country’s
capacity to achieve.

Thus given, the Ethiopian foreign policy has an
approach of what some calls “inside–out”.
Accordingly, the bases for the policy are: -
1. Promoting development and building a democratic
system:
this is to refer that the key interest of the Ethiopian
people is eradicating poverty, diseases, and
illiteracy.
Having accelerated development is a question of
improving the living standards of the people and
of existence as a nation.
Therefore, the government has already issued a
development policy and strategy to achieve this.
On the other hand, democracy is the key
instrument to ensure citizens’ rights and good
governance that enables the people to have a
peaceful life and focus on their development
activities. It also ensures the peaceful co-
existence of the diversified Ethiopian people.
Hence, development, and democratization are
the basis of foreign policy.

2. NATIONAL PRIDE:
National pride is nowadays very much related
to development and democracy.
Ethiopians are proud of their civilization and
the good things done by the previous
generation. But the present generation is also
humiliated due to poverty, backwardness, and
lack of democracy and good governance.

2. NATIONAL PRIDE:
National pride must be the basis for Ethiopian
foreign policy by civilization and good doings.

3. GLOBALIZATION:
The efforts that Ethiopia is making to bring
about development, democracy, and good
governance cannot be separated from the
regional and global situations.
The world economy is highly influenced by
the process of globalization.

3. GLOBALIZATION:
No country (poor or rich) can be free from the
influence of globalization.
Globalization, with both its opportunity and
challenges, has become, a reality, whether we like it
or not.
Therefore, the foreign policy makes globalization
the basis for the country’s relation with other nations
with the view to protect the damages and to make
use of the opportunities of globalization.
Basing itself on all the above bases the newly
adopted foreign policy is aimed at:
⁂Creating a conducive environment to
make use of the available market and
investment opportunities.
⁂Securing technical assistance, loans, and
aid for the development and
democratization endeavor of the country.

⁂Enhancing friendships with countries to bring
about conducive global and regional situations
that contribute to our development, peace and
democracy.
⁂Predicting the possible threats to peace and
solving or minimizing them through
discussion and negotiation.
⁂Minimizing the negative impact of
globalization on the country’s development in
collaboration with other nations and through
individual and collective efforts.
Accordingly, the foreign and security policy
established the following foreign policy strategies
that should be employed:
1) Devoting the prime focus to activities at home:
The strategy is based on the “domestic first,
external second” approach, which focuses on
what can be done in the country to meet the need
of its domestic requirements.

2. The strategy centered on the economy:
The country’s relations of friendship or otherwise
should be based first of all on economic matters.
Accordingly, its diplomacy should be mainly
centered on economic diplomatic activity.
Also, the country’s defense capability should not
be built in a way that would have a detrimental
influence on its economy.

3. Full utilization of benefits based on proper
analysis:
We should be able to maximize what we can
receive and utilize any assistance in the
appropriate manner.
Possible avenues of cooperation and access to
them need to be thoroughly assessed and studied.
It is important to know in detail the development
cooperation policy of each country.

4) Minimizing threats on the basis of proper analysis:
Strategies to forestall the threats of Ethiopia’s national
interests and security should be developed.
It is necessary to carry out detailed and accurate studies as
a first key step of a strategy to reduce threats and dangers.
5) Reducing vulnerability to threats:
A strategy of correctly identifying the sources of the
country’s vulnerability and then dealing with the problem
should be employed.
The principal sources of the country’s vulnerability, i.e.
poverty and political problems should be reduced.

6) Building a reliable defense capability:
Strength in military power is a necessary pre-
condition for deterrence, effective diplomatic
action, and acquiring military victory with
minimal damage.
Therefore, it is proper that the institution of an
intellectual capacity and the strengthening of
defense capabilities must be the basic strategy.

7. Building strong implementation capacity:
a) Forging national consensus – The country’s
foreign and security policies, strategies, and
relations should be made transparent to the
public so that various sections of the
community discuss these policies, improve on
them and reach a common position.

b) Strengthening the professional diplomatic
capability - Without professional staff
functioning within an organization, policy
implementation would not be satisfactory. It is
essential that qualified professionals be
deployed in an organized manner.
c) Coordinating and involving those with a role
in implementation - The country’s international
endeavors, it also needs the participation of
others concerned bodies.

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CHAPTER TWO

Understanding Foreign Policy and Diplomacy

Global Affairs chapter Two by Endale A. (2021)

It is the raison d'état, (the reason of state), to

Global Affairs chapter Two by Endale A. (2021)

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These criteria usually applies to less

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The classifications of foreign policy objectives is based

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 (revising the status quo in one‘s own favor) e.g

• The newly emerging powers such as China, India,

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Global Affairs chapter Two by Endale A. (2021)

• are formal agreements to provide mutual

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e.g South Africa is a regional actor in Africa in general and

Global Affairs chapter Two by Endale A. (2021)

Some of the known global actors such as:

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