Introduction to Philosophy of the Human

Person:

Method of
Philosophizin
g
GROUP 2
DE MESA, R-JAY
DE VILLA, JERICHO
CASTILLO, ANGELENE
CRUZ, ASHLEY
DEL ROSARIO, DON CUETO, RINALYN
GAUT, JOHN ALEXIS DE LARA, JASMINE
JAVILLO, ADRIAN DILLA, JULIAH
MAUNTOL, HAKIMA
OBJECTIVES
1. To distinguish opinion from truth.

2. To analyze situations that show the difference.

3. To realize that the method of philosophy leads to

wisdom and truth.

4. To evaulate opinons.
OBJECTIVES
1. To distinguish opinion from truth.

2. To analyze situations that show the difference.

3. To realize that the method of philosophy leads to

wisdom and truth.

4. To evaulate opinons.
OBJECTIVES
1. To distinguish opinion from truth.

2. To analyze situations that show the difference.

3. To realize that the method of philosophy leads to

wisdom and truth.

4. To evaulate opinons.
OBJECTIVES
1. To distinguish opinion from truth.

2. To analyze situations that show the difference.

3. To realize that the method of philosophy leads to

wisdom and truth.

4. To evaulate opinons.
OBJECTIVES
1. To distinguish opinion from truth.

2. To analyze situations that show the difference.

3. To realize that the method of philosophy leads to

wisdom and truth.

4. To evaulate opinons.
OBJECTIVES
1. To distinguish opinion from truth.

2. To analyze situations that show the difference.

3. To realize that the method of philosophy leads to

wisdom and truth.

4. To evaulate opinons.
LEGEND/S
TULIP
an indicator of the important words or sentences
that you need to write in your notebook.
GUIDED LEARNING

BRAIN TEASERS

-is a form of puzzle that requires thought to solve it

often requires thinking in unconventional ways with
given constraints in mind.

-it involves lateral thinking, logical puzzles, and

riddles.
GUIDED LEARNING

BRAIN TEASERS

-is a form of puzzle that requires thought to solve it

often requires thinking in unconventional ways with
given constraints in mind.

-it involves lateral thinking, logical puzzles, and

riddles.
This chapter shall demonstrate the various ways of
doing philosophy.

In search of wisdom, the learner must evaluate

arguments and methods of expressing beliefs,
emotions, and opinions

This section shall introduce methods or ways of

looking at truth and what will be considered mere
"opinions."
 It considers or discusses a (matter) from a philosophical
standpoint.

In phenomenology, truth is based on the person's

consciousness

while in existentialism, truth is based on exercising choices

and personal freedom in postmodernism, it is accepted that
truth is not absolute

and in logic, truth is based on reasoning and critical thinking.

INTRODUCTION: METHOD
OF PHILOSOPHIZNG
A. Phenomenology: On Consciousness
HISTORY COGITO
" The I that exists and the I that exists is essentially a
thinking I"

COGITO ERGO SUM

" I think; therefore, I AM! "

• A philosophical proof of existence is based on the fact

that someone capable of any form of thought
necessarily exists.

Rene Descartes
Father of Modern Philosophy
Doubted the certitude of
The thinking I is always
the world outside of the
conscious of this world
self (ego)
PHENOMENOLOGICAL
INVESTIGATION
A. Phenomenology: On Consciousness
ORIGIN

}
Phainomenon = appearance
study of phenomenon
logos = reason/study
Phenomenon - anything that
exists of which the mind is
conscious

EH HINDI
PAANO KA

Example: Book
KUNG NAKILALA

A book exists materially and our mind is conscious of its purpose,

topics, story, lesson, etc.
A. Phenomenology: On Consciousness
Phenomenology is the scientific study of the essential
structure of consciousness.

By describing these structures, Husserl believes that we can

find certainty, which philosophy has always sought.

Husserl's phenomenology is the thesis that consciousness is

intentional. Every act of consciousness is directed at some
object or another possibly a material object or an ideal object.
A. Phenomenology: On Consciousness
" Back to the things themselves"

In Irrational Man, a study of existential philosophy. Willian

Barrete writes.

"a discipline that attempts to describe what is

given to us in the experience without obscuring
preconceptions or hypothetical speculations"

ESSENCE OF CONSCIOUSNESS
Pure Phenomenology

Husserl distinguishes between the natural world

and the phenomenological standpoint.

The former is our ordinary everyday viewpoint

and ordinary stance if natural science.

Edmund Husserl
Father of Modern Philosophy
Pure Phenomenology

The phenomenological standpoint is achieved

through a series of phenomenological
“reductions” that eliminate certain aspects of our
experience from consideration. Husserl
formulates several of these and their emphasis
shifts throughout his career.

Edmund Husserl
Father of Modern Philosophy
PHENOMENOLOGICAL ATTITUDE
EPOCHE " suspension / bracketing out "
• that he describes in Ideas: General Introduction to Pure
Phenomenology, in which the phenomenologist “brackets”
all questions of truth or reality and simply describes the
contents of consciousness.

Epoche = Phenomenological Reduction

Epoche = Phenomenological Reduction

PHENOMENOLOGICAL
• it transforms the world into a phenomenon

REDUCTION
• it leads back to the source of the meaning of
the experienced world
Eidetic Reduction
• is to the movement from fact to essence.

1) reduction to the sphere of 2) movement from fact to the

immanence essence

• suspension of the natural • eidetic reduction

attitude • objects are no longer
• placing in abeyance all conceived as a material
beliefs in the transcendental things but as essence.
world.
IMPLICATION OF PURE PHENOMENOLOGY
• is the realization that consciousness is intentional.

• consciousness is an act of or about something.

• directed toward the phenomena.

• any form of thinking is based ultimately on the

phenomena of the world
B. Existentialism: On Freedom

• is a philosophical theory or approach that emphasizes the

existence of the individual person as a free and responsible
agent determining their own development through acts of
the will.

Example: Alice and in Wonderland

B. Existentialism: On Freedom

"The authentic self was the

personally chosen self, as
opposed to public or herd
identity."

Soren Kierkegaard
Father of Existentialism
B. Existentialism: On Freedom

• But Friedrich Nietzsche took this view of the

opposition of genuine individuals versus the identity of
'herd' identity.

• Both Kierkegaard and Nietzsche influenced Martin

Heidegger, a German Philosopher, whose conception
of ownness came to dominate contemporary
existentialist thought.

Friedrich Nietzsche
German Philosoper
B. Existentialism: On Freedom

• However, Jean-Paul Sartre, a French Philosopher, emphasized

the importance of free individual choice regardless of the
power of the people to influence and coerce, our desires,
beliefs, and decisions.

• Sartre argued that consciousness (being-for-itself) is such that

it is always free to choose (though not free not to choose) and
free to "negtate" (or reject) the given features of the world.
B. Existentialism: On Freedom

To be human, to be conscious
is to be free to imagine, free to
choose, and responsible for
one's life"

(Solomon and Higgins 2010)

C. Postmodernism: On Culture

-Postmodernism is a term that encompasses a wide range of

developments in philosophy, film, architecture, art, literature,
and culture.

-Postmodernism is best understood as a questioning of the ideas

and values associated with a form of modernism that believes in
progress and innovation.
C. Postmodernism: On Culture

• Postmodernists consider that to arrive at truth, humanity

should realize the limits of reasons and objectism.
Moreover, postmodernists value our existence in the world
and in relation to it. It emphasizes the diversity of human
experience and the multiplicity of perspectives.
D. Analytic Tradition
"Can language objectively
describe truth?"
D. Analytic Tradition
"Can language objectively
describe truth?"
• For the philosophers of this tradition, language cannot
objectively describe truth. For Ludwig Wittgenstein, an
analytic philosopher, language is socially conditioned. We
understand the world solely in terms of our language games
—that is, our linguistic, and social constructs. Truth, as we
perceive it, is itself socially constructed.
D. Analytic Tradition
"Can language objectively
describe truth?"
• Analytic Philosophy is the conviction that to some
significant degree philosophical problems, puzzles, and
errors are rooted in language amd can be solved or avoided
by a sound understanding of language and careful attention
to its working. Analysis refers to a method, owing a great
deal to the pioneers, Bertrand Russell, G.E. Moore, Ludwig
Wittgenstein, and J.L. Austin.
E. Logic and Critical Thinking: Tools in Reasoning

• Logic is centered on the analysis and construction of

arguments. It is one of the main branches of philosophy.
Critical thinking is distinguishing facts and opinions or
personal feelings. Logic and critical thinking serve as paths
to freedom from half-truths and deceptions. In making
rational choices, first, we suspend beliefs and judgment
until all facts have been gathered and considered.
E. Logic and Critical Thinking: Tools in Reasoning

• Though facts are important, critical thinking also

takes into consideration cultural systems, values, and
beliefs. Critical thinking helps us uncover bias and
prejudice and be open to new ideas not necessarily in
agreement with previous thoughts.
E. Logic and Critical Thinking: Tools in Reasoning

• In general, there are two types of reasoning:

1. Inductive reasoning- is based on observations in order to

make generalizations. This type of reasoning is often applied in
prediction, forecasting, or behavior.
E. Logic and Critical Thinking: Tools in Reasoning

1. Deductive reasoning- this type of reasoning draws

conclusions from usually one broad judgment or definition and
one more specific assertion, often an inference.

Take for instance:

• All philosophers are wise. (Major premise)

• Confucius is a philosopher. (Minor premise)
• Therefore, Confucius is wise. (Conclusion)
E. Logic and Critical Thinking: Tools in Reasoning

Validity and Soundness of an Argument

Based on the previous examples, if the two premises are constructed

logically, then the conclusion must follow logically, and the
deductive argument is valid. This does not necessarily mean that the
conclusion is true or false. Validity comes from a logical conclusion
based on logically constructed premises. (Reed, 2010)
E. Logic and Critical Thinking: Tools in Reasoning

Strength of an Argument

On the other hand, inductive arguments cannot prove if the premises are
true. Inductive reasoning proves only the probable support to the
conclusion. An inductive argument that succeeds in providing such
probable support is a strong argument. If it fails to provide such support
in an argument, it is weak. A strong inductive argument with true
premises is said to be cogent
E. Logic and Critical Thinking: Tools in Reasoning

For Example:

Jay: Do you think Congressman Gerry will be re-elected?

Yna: I doubt it. His district has become more conservative in recent
years. Also, 63% of the registered voters in his district are in
opposition.

This argument is both a statistical and predictive argument, which are

two common patterns of inductive reasoning. Also, the conclusion does
not follow necessarily the premises.
 F. FALLACIES
- It is a defect in an argument other than its having false
premises.

Example:
" In the cat kingdom, tigers and lions are ruthless killers.
Therefore, house cats must be ruthless killers too. "
12 Usually Committed Errors
to Detect Fallacies
A. APPEAL TO PITY
(Argumentum ad misericordiam)
• Ad misericordiam is Latin for
"to compassion or pity"

• It is a specific kind of appeal that involves exploiting

the opponent's feelings of pity or guilt (it is usually
irrelevant).
B. APPEAL TO IGNORANCE
(Argumentum ad ignorantiam)
• Ad ignorantiam is Latin for ignore

• Whatever has not been proven false is therefore true

• This is the consequence of having a lack of knowledge on a

certain subject or the lack of effort to know more about the said
subject

Example:
"No one has proven that you are innocent therefore you are guilty to
me"
C. EQUIVOCATION
• The logical chain of reasoning of a term or a word is
used several times, but giving the particular word a
different meaning each time.

Example:

" Taxes are a true headache, painkillers make headaches go

away, therefore painkillers will make taxes go away "
D. COMPOSITION
• This infers that something is true of the
whole from the fact that it is true of
some part of the whole.
E. DIVISION
• One reason logically is that something
true of a thing must also be of all or
some of its parts.
F. AGAINST THE PERSON
(Argumentum ad hominem)
• Ad hominem is Latin for "to the person"

• This fallacy attempts to link the validity of a

premise to a character or a belief of the person
advocating the premise.
G. APPEAL TO FORCE
(Argumentum ad baculum)
• Ad baculum is Latin for "fear of force"

• An argument when force, coercion, or the

threat of force, is given as a justification
for a conclusion.
H. APEAL TO THE PEOPLE
(Argumentum ad populum)
• Ad populum is Latin for "to the people"

• An argument that appeals to of exploits

people's vanities, desire for esteem, and
anchoring on popularity.
I. FALSE CAUSE
(post hoc)

• This fallacy attempts to link the validity of

a premise to a character or a belief of the
person advocating the premise.
J. HASTY GENERALIZATION

• One commits errors if one reaches an inductive

generalization based on insufficient evidence.

• This fallacy is commonly based on a broad

conclusion upon the statistics of a survey of a small
group that fails to sufficiently represent the whole
population.
K. BEGGING THE QUESTION
(peticio principii)

• This is a type of fallacy in which the

proposition to be proven is assumed
simplicity or explicitly in the premise.
2.2. Analyze Situation
that Shows the
Difference Between
Opinion and Truth
 Analyze Situation that Shows the
Difference Between Opinion and
Truth
Truth can also be referred to as a fact because it is asserted to be
true, and we are aware that both opinion and truth are examples of
assertions (declarative sentences that assert something to be true
about a particular thing), with the only distinction being that
opinions are more challenging to independently verify than truth.
 3THE'S THAT DEFINES A
PROPOSITION IN TERMS OF ITS
CAPACITY FOR BEING TRUE OR
FALSE ACCORDING TO LUDWIG
WITTGENSTEIN.
1. The limits of what can be said, therefore, are defined by the logical rules

2. The limits of my language mean the limit of my world.

3. The logic of language shows how elements fit states of affairs and how
the state of affairs in wider constellations can be linked together; we can
decide on the basic of this logic.
 • According to Ludwig Wittgenstein words enable us
towords enable us
take pictures of to make pictures of
facts.
facts

EVERYONE!!
• I want all of you to close your eyes and create a
visual representation of what I am going to tell.
But what did you notice in your
answer and my question?
 But what did you notice in your
answer and my question?
We've managed to swap our own visualization of the story.

It was somehow accurate.

You've painted a rapid sketch of the story in your mind.

• This will cause confusion to the receiver of the action.
• Ludwig Wittgenstein created this
book to teach us to speak more
carefully and less impulsively.

Ludwig Wittgenstein
Philosopher
If the purpose of a sentence is to inform or
state a fact, some of its words must refer to
things, events or properties.

Some of its words have cognitive meaning.

 COGNITIVE MEANING
" nagbibigay-malay "

• the mental action or process of acquiring

knowledge and understanding through thought,
experience, and the senses.
(https: //www.cambridgecognition.com)
 EMOTIVE MEANING
" madamdamin "
Speak more carefully: positive emotive meaning

• an emotional reaction designed to express a positive affect,

such as happiness when one attains a goal, relief when the
danger has been avoided, or contentment when one is
satisfied with the present state of affairs.
 EMOTIVE MEANING
" madamdamin "
Less impulsively: negative emotive meaning

an unpleasant, often disruptive, emotional reaction

designed to express a negative affect.
 His point is to let us know that all kinds
of misunderstanding arise when we don't
see which kind of game someone is
involved in.
Ludwig Wittgenstein
Philosopher
 2.3. Realize the
Methods of Philosophy
that Lead to Wisdom
and Truth
For Double(1999), although philosophy is an
organized body of knowledge the subject matter of
philosophy questions, which have three more
characteristics:
For Double(1999), although philosophy is an
organized body of knowledge the subject matter of
philosophy questions, which have three more
characteristics:
1. Philosophical questions have answers, but the answers remain in
dispute.
For Double(1999), although philosophy is an
organized body of knowledge the subject matter of
philosophy questions, which have three more
characteristics:

2. Philosophical questions cannot be settled by science, common sense,

or faith.
For Double(1999), although philosophy is an
organized body of knowledge the subject matter of
philosophy questions, which have three more
characteristics:

3. Philosophical questions are of perennial intellectual interest to human

beings.
For Double(1999), although philosophy is an
organized body of knowledge the subject matter of
philosophy questions, which have three more
characteristics:
1. Philosophical questions have answers, but the answers remain in
dispute.

2. Philosophical questions cannot be settled by science, common

sense, or faith.

3. Philosophical questions are of perennial intellectual interest to

human beings.
METHODOLOGY
 METHODOLOGY
• A method that philosophers use to address philosophical
questions is critical thinking.
 METHODOLOGY

• Critical thinking is the careful, reflective, rating, and systematic

approach to questions of very general interest.
 METHODOLOGY

• It means understanding philosophy and refraining from merely

giving clarity but through careful thought, one reason through
argumentations.
 METHODOLOGY
• A method that philosophers use to address philosophical
questions is critical thinking.

• Critical thinking is the careful, reflective, rating, and systematic

approach to questions of very general interest.

• It means understanding philosophy and refraining from merely

giving clarity but through careful thought, one reason through
argumentations.
For Maboloc and Pascua (2008), critical thinking
is a lifelong process of self-assessment that further
consists of:

• Defining, analyzing, and devising solutions;

• Arriving at reasonable and informed conclusions;

• Applying understanding and knowledge to new and

different problems;
For Maboloc and Pascua (2008), critical thinking
is a lifelong process of self-assessment that further
consists of:

• willingness to change one point of view;

• continually examining and re-examining ideas; and

• willingness to say "I don't know"

The attributes of a critical thinker include:

• Looks for evidence to support assumptions and beliefs

• Adjusts opinions

• Looks for proof

• Examines problem

• Rejects irrelevant and incorrect information

2.4. Evaulate Opinions
As discussed in the previous sections,
Critical thinking and logic are important tools to distinguish facts
from opinions.

EVALUATE OPINIONS
An opinion can be a belief or judgment that rests on grounds
insufficient to produce complete certainty.

It is a personal view, attitude, appraisal, or personal feelings.

INSTRUCTIONS:
• Use critique as critical thinking.
• Asses and notate their positive aspect of them.
• Develop thesis.
• Construct arguments.

REMEMBER!
DON'T USE FOUL WORDS.
EXERCISE: EVALUATING
OPINIONS
" ANO NGA BA ANG MAS
NAUNA, ANG ITLOG O ANG
MANOK?"