Module 2

Indian Theatre
Content:
 Origin of Indian Theatre and its Evolution
o Sanskrit Theatre
o Folk Theatre
o Medieval Theatre
o Nationalist Theatre
o Group Theatres
 Contemporary Indian Theatre Forms in Practice
o Third Theatre
o Alternative Living Theatre
o SAGs (Social Action Groups) 
Cont.

• Notable Indian theatre personalities

o Mahesh Dattani
o Vijaya Mehta
o Veenapani Chawla
o Sanjoy Ganguly
o Ebrahim Alkazi 
o Habib Tanvir
Indian theatre: Origin

• The history of theatre in India can be traced back to the 15th

century BC.
• Though Indian theatre was very unique, it started because of
the same reason for which other theatres across the world
started.
• Indians praised their gods using this noble art form.
Cont.
• The early evidence of theatre in India was derived from the
ancient Buddhist literature and the Buddhist philosopher
Asvaghosa, who composed the Buddha Charitha. He is
believed to be the first Sanskrit dramatist.
• Though theatre in India might have started as early as the
15th century BC, it flourished from the 2nd century BC with
the Sanskrit theatre.
• The Vedas do not offer us much information on this topic,
although some portions are composed in the form of a
dialogue.
Indian Theatre - Features

• Acting, conversation, poetry, and music are all used in Indian

theatre. It began as a narrative form of art in which recitations,
dance, and song were used to convey local history, society ethos,
and so on.
• Traditional theatrical forms are nearly always performed during
religious festivals, ceremonial offerings, meetings, and prayers. It
portrays ordinary people's habits, beliefs, social knowledge, and
feelings. It's a mash-up of entertainment and religious observances.
• There are six main elements of theatre, viz., Plot, Character,
Thought, Diction, Music and Spectacle.
• Indian Theatre can be divided into Classical Sanskrit Theatre,
Folk Theatre, and Modern Indian Theatre.
Sanskrit Theatre
Sanskrit Theatre: Origin
• The Indian dramatic tradition was influenced by the dramatic
elements found in the Vedas, in dialogue hymns and Vedic
rituals.
• Thus, it is in the Vedic era (1500 – 1000 BCE) that we see
dramatic elements that will come to define drama in the years
to come and eventually usher in a genre known as Indian
Classical Drama as we know it.
• Even the epics, such as the Mahabharata support the
existence of performers or nata as early as 400 CE.
Cont.
• However, the most extant treatise on Indian drama is
the Natyashastra by Bharatamuni, which emerged in 3rd
CE.
• Bharata ascribes a divine origin to the dramatic tradition,
which highlights its Vedic religious beginnings.
• The very existence of such a text suggests that it was the
culmination of a fairly long process of dramatic development
taking place at that time.
 Indian classical drama and Greek drama:
Similarities and differences
The Greek invasion of the Indian subcontinent has led a few
critics to assert a Greek influence on Indian drama.
Similarities: 
There are some similarities such as- 
• the plot being mainly centered on historical, mythical figures,
• the division of the Play into Acts and Scenes,
• use of the Chorus, etc demonstrate this Greek influence on all
drama
Cont.
Differences: 
• Indian tradition has the added element of supernatural figures such as
gods and goddesses that populate the world of drama,
• the absence of tragedy in the Indian dramatic tradition, 
• Greek drama’s adherence to the Three Unities of time, place and
action is not strictly observed in Indian drama where the action shifts
from earthly spaces to heavenly ones, taking place across many years as
well
• dance and song are an important part of Indian drama and which are
not found in the Greek counterpart
Some features of Sanskrit theatre:

• Purpose:

According to the Natyashastra, a dramatic work’s purpose

was to provide not just entertainment and pleasure but
instruction and spiritual liberation.
That’s why Sanskrit drama does not have a tragic ending
because in Hindu cosmology, death is not the end but a
means to either achieve spiritual liberation from the cycle of
life or be reborn till it is achieved.
Emphasis on sentiment:

The Rasa or the aesthetic sentiment is an important aspect

of Sanskrit theatre, and can be defined as the audience’s
refined emotional response evoked by a play
Rasa can be explained as a blissful aesthetic experience
achieved via drama, and is seen as Sanskrit drama’s highest
purpose.
Cont.
Natyashastra concentrates on two themes: rasa and the ways of
expressing rasa.
There are four methods to communicate sentiments according to
Natyashastra:
 Gestures (Angik): acting through the movement of various bodily parts.
 Oral (Vachik): dialogue-based acting.
 Spiritual (Satwik): expressionsused to indicate spirituality.
 Properties (Aharya): The play's materials, such as colors, clothes, and
decorations. All of these are stated directly in relation to the play's topic.
Only two of them are mentioned in the Natya Shastra: Nataka and
Prakarna.
Classification of plays:
Natyashastra mentions 10 different types of plays in Sanskrit
tradition.
Anka, Bhana, Dima, Ihamgra, Nataka, Prahasana,
Prakarana, Svakarna, Vithi, and Vyayog.
Only two of them are elaborated: Nataka and Prakarna.
Nataka are plays based on myths and heroic tales, and
the Prakarana are plays based on fictitious stories and where
less important characters are dominant.
Plot structure:
1.Sanskrit drama’s idealized plot structure consists of five transitions that
lead to a final culmination of the events depicted.
2.The first is the “origin” (mukha), which states the seeds or
the beginning of the plot
3.The second is the “incident” (pratimukha), which develops the
plotline further by showing both good and bad events
4.The third is “germ” (garbha) where good actions/events seem to lead
towards the “aim” (phala)
5.The fourth is “crisis” (vimarsa) where bad actions/events seem to
outweigh the good and strays away from the “aim”
6.The fifth is “completion” (nirvahana) that brings together all the
different narratives in the play to a definitive conclusion.
Stage Properties

• In his Natya Shastra, Bharata also describes how to manage the

stage. The play's essential elements have been deemed to be
dance and music. There is also a reference to the desirable
qualities found in the actor (abhineta).
• The various terms used in Sanskrit for stage are natyagriha,
natyamandapa, preksagriha or preksagara. 
• Plays for the governing classes were traditionally performed in
forts or temples, while those for the ordinary people may be
performed anywhere, including on journeys.
Cont.
• Natya Shastra refers to squarish-shaped theatres. Other
volumes discuss various types of stages and galleries, among
other topics.
• There were two-story stages. The heavenly sphere was
portrayed on the top floor, while the earthly sphere was
represented on the lower floor.
• Curtains were employed to enhance the play's
effect. Masks, on the other hand, were not utilized.
Royal stage
• Music halls, temple precincts, and gardens were used as places for the
performance of plays.
• The ancient Indian kings had pleasure gardens, theatres and music
halls connected to their spacious palaces, usually for their amusement.
• The audience consisted of men of education, culture and artistic sense,
such as kings, queens, ministers, court poets and courtiers.
• The halls were decorated in a unique manner, furnished with flowers,
and jewelled pillars.
• The king used to seat in the middle of the auditorium. Seats for the
members of the royal family were provided in the surrounding places.
Thus there was a theatre in the palace itself.
Cont.
• Stages are said to have been built in continuation of the open
courtyard, linking the tank or shed in the temple and the
palace.
• Most of the well known temples of India had natamandiras
where dancers and actors propitiated the gods and goddesses
through the depiction of their art.
• The stage was temporarily built and its equipments were thus
very simple.
Bilingual nature: 
One of the unique aspects of Sanskrit drama is its bilingual
nature.
The protagonists who belonged to the upper castes such as
Brahmins and Kshatriyas spoke in Sanskrit whereas
characters from other sections of society such as soldiers,
servants, women and children etc. spoke in the various
Prakrit languages.
Composition of actors: 
• Unlike the ban on female actors in European classical drama,
the Sanskritic tradition did not have such prohibitions that
required male actors to perform the role of female leads, and
• Theatre could be performed by men alone, women alone or a
mix of both, depending on the plot.
Limitations
The audience was mostly limited to a refined circle of upper
castes such as the royalty, aristocrats, Brahmins and Kshatriyas
since they were educated in Sanskrit unlike the masses who
did not possess the knowledge of elite Sanskrit language
Natyashastra states that the ideal spectators should be
educated and noble men, all four castes could watch a play as
long as they were seated separately
Such barriers limited the extent of popularization of Sanskrit
drama amongst the masses.
Playwrights
Sanskrit drama is defined by the works of dramatists such as Sudraka,
Bhasa, Bhavbhuti, Harsha, and Kalidasa to name a few. They have
survived through thousands of years because of their literary prowess
in depicting characters, settings, plots in their own individualistic way.
Almost all the great Sanskrit playwrights benefitted from royal
patronage or were part of royal households or even of kings
Some of the recent Sanskrit playwrights include- Manmohan
Acharya (Arjuna Pratijnaa, Shrita-kamalam, Pada-pallavam, Divya-
Jayadevam, Pingalaa, Mrtyuh, Sthitaprajnah, Tantra-mahasaktih,
Purva-sakuntalam, Uttara sakuntalam and Raavanah); Vidyadhar
Shastri (Purnanandam, Kalidainyam and Durbala Balam) and Prafulla
Kumar Mishra (Chitrangada and Karuna).
Bhasa
• Bhasa (3rd- 4th CE) was a Sanskrit playwright, preceding Kalidasa, believed
to have lived in the city of Ujjain, M.P.
• Bhasa’s works saw the light of the day in 1909 when the play
Swapnavasavadatta (Vision of Vasavadatta) was discovered by Pandit
Anandalvar of the Archaeological Survey of Mysore. In 1913 a total of
thirteen plays were discovered in an old library in Thiruvananthapuram
(Trivandrum) by T Ganapati Shastri.
• Bhasa drew his inspiration from epics such as the Mahabharata, the
Ramayana, the Purana and semi-historical legends and figures
• Bhasa’s plays do not follow the Natyashastra very strictly, even breaking
dramatic conventions. This has led some critics to conclude that Bhasa’s plays
were written before Bharatamnuni’s treatise; others see this as an indication of
Bhasa’s poetic experiments and disregard for dramatic conventions
Cont.
•Swapnavasavadatta is his most famous play that depicts the story of King
Udayana, who must choose between marrying for love his beloved
Vasavadatta or the daughter of a neighboring king, Princess Padmavati, for
political gain. In the play Bhasa combines romance with political intrigue
creating a new kind of drama. Along with traditional dramas, Bhasa also wrote
short plays, one act plays, and monologues.
•Among the many dramatic conventions that Bhasa broke was depicting a
tragic ending in his plays. Both Uru-bhanga (Breaking of the
Thighs) and Karnabhara (Karna’s Task), which deal with the stories of
Duryodhana and Karna respectively, end on tragic notes. Unlike others, he
treats these characters with sympathy.
•Bhasa does not shy away from showing violent acts on stage, which was
another Natyashastra convention that he disregards.
Sudraka
• Sudraka, literally translated as the little servant, was a poet-king
who lived in Ujjain in the 2nd CE
• He is well known for his Prakarana play, Mrichchhakatika (The
Little Clay Cart), which is an extended version of Bhasa’s
incomplete play Charudattam (Charudatta)
• The ten act play tells the love story of a Brahmin
merchant, Charudatta and a courtesan Vasantasenâ, whose union
is thwarted by a jealous suitor
• It offers an interesting and realistic picture of urban society and the
complex social structure of that time.
• His other plays include Vinavasavadatta, and a Bhana (short one-
act monologue), and Padmaprabhritaka
Bhavbhuti
• Bhavabhuti, a major dramatist of the later Sanskrit dramatic period, was the
court poet of King Yashovarman of Kannauj, in north India in 8th CE
• He too wrote plays based on the Ramayana, such as
the Mahaviracharita (Exploits of a Great Hero), which depicts the early life of
Rama and Uttaramcharita (The Latter History of Rama), which shows the
final years of Rama’s life as written in the Uttara Kanda of the Ramayana. Both
the plays consist of seven acts written in the Nataka style.
• His third drama, Malatimadhava (Malati and Madhava), is a Prakarana
play centered on the love story of Malati, the daughter of a minister and
Madhavya, her beloved. The use of the supernatural makes this play a one of a
kind drama that skillfully combines romance with horror.
• He is known for completely doing away with the vidusaka and thus
eliminating the comic element in his plays. Critics see this as a reflection of his
temperament that could not portray humor effectively.
Kalidasa
• Kalidasa was a Sanskrit playwright belonging to the period of 4 th-
5th century. He is believed to be a courtier under Chandragupta II
• His plays and poetry are primarily based on the Vedas, the Ramayaṇa,
the Mahabharata and the Puraṇas.
• His works include notable plays, such
as Mālavikāgnimitram (Pertaining to Mâlavikâ and Agnimitra),
and Vikramorvasiyam (Pertaining to Vikrama and Urvashi). He also
wrote epic poems such as Raghuvamsa (Dynasty of Raghu)
and Kumârasambhava (Birth of ‘Kumara’ or Subrahmanya) along
with Khandakavyas (minor poems)
• However, his most popular and famous work remains the Abhijñâna
Shâkuntalam (The Recognition of Shakuntala).
Folk Theatre
Features
• Folk Theatre is a composite art form in India with a fusion of
elements from music, dance, mime, versification, epic and
ballad recitation, graphic and plastic arts, religion and festival
peasantry.
• Besides providing mass entertainment, it helps Indian society as
indigenous tools of interpersonal, inter-group and inter-village
communication for ages.
• Folk theatre has been used extensively in India to propagate
critical social, political and cultural issues in the form of
theatrical messages to create awareness among the people.
Cont.
• As an indigenous form it breaks all kinds of formal barriers
of human communication and appeals directly to the people.
• Folk theatres grew out of the situations, experiences, and
analysis of the actors who are themselves villagers.
• They created their own dramas out of their own collective
analysis of their immediate situation and the deeper structures
in which they are embedded.
• This art is a genuine expression of the people. 
Origin:
• Historically speaking, it was during the 15th -16th century that
the folk theatre emerged forcefully in different regions.
• It used different languages, the languages of the regions in which
it emerged.
• Initially these were purely devotional in nature and typically
revolved around religion, local legends and mythology. 
• Later, with changing times, it became more secular in content
and began to focus on folk stories of romance and valor and
biographical accounts of local heroes.
Types
• Indian folk theatre can be broadly divided into two broad categories —
religious and secular — giving rise to the Ritual Theatre and Theatre of
Entertainment respectively
• The two forms thrived together, mutually influencing each other.
Most often the folk and traditional forms are mainly narrative or vocal,
i.e. singing and recitation-based like Ramlila, Rasleela, Nautanki and
Swang, without any complicated gestures or movements and elements of
dance.
• While most of these theatrical styles have their own unique form
dependent on their local customs, they differ from one another in
execution, staging, costume, make-up and acting style, although
there are some broad similarities.
Cont.
• The south Indian forms emphasize on dance forms like Kathakali and
Krishnattam of Kerala and actually qualify as dance dramas, while the north
Indian forms emphasize on songs, like the Khyal of Rajasthan, the Maach of
Madhya Pradesh, the Nautanki of Uttar Pradesh and the Swang of Punjab.
• The Jaatra of Bengal stress on dialogues in their execution, and Tamasha of
Maharashtra and the Bhavai of Gujarat emphasize on comedy and satire.
• Puppet theatre also flourished at many places in India-Shadow
(Gombeyatta of Karnataka, Ravana Chhaya of Orissa), Glove (Gopalila of
Orissa, Pavai Koothu of Tamil Nadu), Doll (Bommalattam of Tamil Nadu
and the Mysore State and Putul Naach of Bengal) and String puppets
(Kathputli of Rajasthan and Sakhi Kundhei of Orissa) are some of the
popular forms in vogue.
Cont.
• Dramatic art can also be found in some of the solo forms
of Indian classical dance, like Bharat Natyam, Katthak,
Odissi and Mohiniattam, and folk dances like the Gambhira
and Purulia Chhau of Bengal, Seraikella Chhau of Bihar and
Mayurbhanj Chhau of Orissa.
• Dramatic content is even woven into the ritual ceremonies in
some areas, particularly those of Kerala, with its Mudiyettu
and Teyyam.
Famous folk theatres in India
Bhand Pather
• Traditional theatre form of Kashmir
• A unique combination of dance, music, and acting
• Music is provided with Surnai, Nagaara, and Dhol
• It is usually held in open spaces.
• There are no predetermined scripts. Innovativeness is also a
unique feature of this form of play
• These stories commemorate the lives of rishis (Sufi Sages, both
Hindus and Muslims). This shows the secular character of this
play
Saang/Swang
• It is a folk dance–theatre form in Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh, and Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh.
• It is considered as the most ancient folk theatre form of India
• Two important styles of Swang are: Rohtak and Haathras
• Nautanki and Tamasha originated from this folk dance
theatre
Nautanki
• It is associated with the state of Uttar Pradesh
• Famous centers of this theatre form are Kanpur, Lucknow,
and Haathras.
• Only Men could play a part in this folk dance theatre initially.
However, these days even woman are allowed
• Gulab Bai of Kanpur is a famous artist of this school
Raasleela
• It is based exclusively on Lord Krishna legends
• Some believe that it was Nand Das who wrote the initial
plays based on the life of Krishna.
• This theatre is famous in the regions of Mathura,
Vrindavana in Uttar Pradesh, especially during the
festivals of Krishna Janmashtami and Holi
Bhavai
• It is a traditional theatre form of Gujarat
• The centers of this form are Kutch and Kathiawar.
• In this theatre form, both devotional and romantic
sentiments are used.
Jatra
• This form was born and nurtured in Bengal
• It became popular due to Chaitanya Mahaprabhu influence
• The earlier form of Jatra was musical.
• Dialogues were added at a later stage.
• Fairs in honor of gods, or religious
rituals and ceremonies are also conducted.
Maach
• It is a traditional theatre form of Madhya Pradesh
• Songs are given more prominence than the dialogues
• The tunes of this theatre form are known as Rangat.
Bhaona
• This theatre form originated in Assam
• Practiced in Assam, Bengal, Odisha, Mathura, and Brindavan
• The story begins in Sanskrit and then either Brajboli or
Assamese is used.
Tamasha
• Traditional folk theatre of Maharashtra
• The female actress is the chief exponent of dance
movements in the play
• She is referred to as Murki
Dashavatar
• Theatre form of Goa and Konkan regions
• The performers personify the ten incarnations of Lord
Vishnu
• These performers wear masks of wood
Mudiyettu
• Traditional folk theatre of Kerala
• It is primarily performed in the Kali temples of Kerala
• It depicts the triumph of Goddess Bhadrakali over the
Asura Darika.
Koodiyaattam
• Traditional theatre form of Kerala
• This theatre form is based on Sanskrit theatre traditions
• There is more emphasis on hand gestures and eye
movements in this theatre form technique
Yakshagana
• Traditional theatre form of Karnataka
• In this theatre form- dance, music, dialogue, costume, make-up,
and stage techniques are combined to form a unique style and
form
• It is based on the mythological stories and Puranas
• The most popular episodes are from the Mahabharata
• Yakshagana shows are traditionally presented from dusk to dawn.
• Kabuki, a regional theatre in Japan is much similar in its structure
and performance to Yakshagana.
Burra Katha
• It is an oral storytelling technique performed in villages
of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana
• The troupe consists of one main performer and two co-
performers.
• It is a narrative entertainment that consists of prayers, solo
drama, dance, songs, poems and jokes
• The topic will be either a Hindu mythological story (Jangam
Katha) or a contemporary social issue
Indian Medieval Theatre
Theatre in Medieval India

• In the early 13th century, Indian culture marked a change, where

Sanskrit dramas and stage craft had been previously revered by
the elites, it was now no longer relevant.
• This was due to the invading cultures that began to dominate
and did not appreciate or understand, and since they did not
understand the Sanskrit language it could no longer be held in
such a high regard, and as a consequence many theatre artist
suffered from neglect.
• Bhavabhuti is also associated with medieval India, who was a
famous dramatist. He had written three plays Malati-Madhava,
Magviracharita and the Uttar Ramacharita.
Introduction of classical dance drama
• Theatre in medieval India witnessed a new genre of Indian
drama with the introduction and popularity of Indian classical
dance drama.
• In this classical genre of Indian theatre, style, idea, logic, and
above all dramatic development- all gained a typical shape
amidst the artistic expression through music, songs and
mudraas.
• Theatre in medieval India gradually became quite a thriving
personification and of course a refined embodiment of the
realities of life through dance, music and poise.
• The introduction of "Loknatya“ (folk theatre) during the mid
16th and late 16th century again added a fresh outlook to
Role of Religion in Medieval Indian Theatre

• Religion played a pivotal role in shaping the medieval Indian

theatre as devotional plays, mythological plays and other
religious plays reverberated the aura of Bhakti Movement in
the timeline of Indian theatre.
• When the concept of "Theatrical Art" was introduced,
medieval India was narrating poems. Bhakti poetry
(devotional poems) became popular.
• This altering tradition and the ever-changing Indian culture,
art and folklore, has supported India in standing apart with
her rich heritage and civilization.
Nationalist Theatre in India
Nationalism in Indian theatre
• Nationalism in Indian theatre has played a major role towards
making people aware of the social, economic and cultural
change. 
• Indian theatre has always catered to the need of making people
aware of the social happenings through innovative and interesting
play scripts and narratives.
• The beginnings of a 'national' theatre could be seen in the latter
half of the nineteenth century
• Theatre became deeply entrenched in nationalist thought and its
accompanying contradictions with the production of a number of
anti- colonial plays, e.g., in Bengal theatre Nil Darpan (The
Indigo Mirror, 1860), written by Dinabandhu Mitra, and in
Harishchandra's plays in the Hindi belt, in particular Varanasi
Cont.
• These plays attracted the attention of the British government
and were partially responsible for the passage of the
Dramatic Performances Act of 1876.
• Emerging soon after the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 and the 
Bengal Indigo cultivator Revolt, 1860, the political themes
in these plays showed seeds of discontentment even before
the formation of a full-blown movement of 
Indian nationalism.
• For nineteenth century Bengal, national theatre meant a
critique of colonialism that ultimately relied on colonial
models including architecture, stage design, and the
proscenium arch.
Cont.

• The anti-colonial sentiment, which intensified during the early decades of the
twentieth century, brought along with it a renewed nationalistic energy in
theatre that was often encoded in mythological and historical plays, as seen in
the plays of Radheyshyam Kathavachak and Jayshankar Prasad in 
Hindi theatre, respectively, right through the 1920s and 1930s.
• Suffused with a spirit of a revivalist Hinduism, the 'national' in 
mythological plays, dominant in Hindi and Marathi theatre, included the
consolidation of religious values and dharma (moral duty) towards the nation
that demanded anti-colonial action.
• Simultaneously, though, drama saw the development of a strong social vision
that addressed class issues and themes, shaped the visions of a national theatre.
• With the rise of Left movements in the 1940s, the idea of a 'National Theatre'
came to be located in the context of class struggle by groups such as the 
Indian People's Theatre Association (IPTA).
Indian People's Theatre Association (IPTA)

• IPTA is the short form for Indian People’s Theatre

Association. In the Hindi belt it is called Bhartiya Jan Natya
Sangh, in Assam and West Bengal, Bhartiya Gana Natya
Sangh (Gana Sanskriti Sangh)and in Andhra Pradesh, Praja
Natya Mandali.
• The mission statement of IPTA is ‘People’s Theatre Stars the
People’. The symbol/logo designed by the famous painter
Chitta Prasad is a drummer (nagara vadak), which is a
reminder of one of the oldest medium of communication.
• IPTA was established at the national level on May 25, 1943
in Bombay (now Mumbai). The Government of India issued
a commemorative stamp in 1993 on the occasion of its
Cont.
• IPTA came into existence on May 25, 1943 at the National
Conference at the Marwari School in Bombay.
• It was attended by creative artists from all over the country.
• In his Presidential Address, Professor Hiren Mukherjee gave
a call to all those present: “Come writer and the artist, come
actor and the play-wright, come all who work by hand or by
brain,dedicate yourselves to the task of building a brave new
world of freedom and social justice.”
Cont.
• The history of IPTA runs parallel to the people’s cultural movement in the
country and relates to the independence movements.
• The origin of IPTA followed the first Progressive Writer’s Association
Conference in 1936, the Establishment of Youth Cultural Institute at
Calcutta in 1940, and setting up of the People’s Theatre at Bangalore by
Anil De’ Silva of Sri Lanka in 1941. Anil De’ Silva assisted in formation
of IPTA in Bombay in 1942.
• Various progressive cultural troupes, theatre groups and other progressive
cultural activists came together spontaneously and at their own initiative
for the formation of IPTA.
• The name People’s Theatre was suggested by the renowned scientist
Homi Jahangir Bhabha who was inspired by Romain Rolland’s book on
the concepts of People’s Theatre. 
Cont.

• The devastating man-made famine of Bengal in 1942

inspired many a progressive writers and artists.
• One of them was Binoy Roy who organized Bengal Cultural
Squad to sensitize about the impact of famine on the people
and to collect money to support the victims.
• The Squad traveled through the breadth of the country
presenting their choir ‘Bhookha Hai Bengal’ created by
Vamik Jaunpuri and other songs and plays.
• Musician Prem Dhawan , drum player Dashrath Lal, singer
Reva Roy, actress Usha Dutt were also a part of the Squad.
Cont.
• Motivated by the Squad, several cultural groups were formed,
including the Agra Cultural Squad.
• When these groups became effective in their regions, a need was felt
to organize them at the national level.
• Ideologically these groups were inspired by the left movement and the
then General Secretary of the Communist Party of India, P.C. Joshi,
played an instrumental role to bring these groups on a common forum.
• General Secrtetary of Progressive Writers’ Association Sajjad Zaheer
also contributed a lot.
• The Indian People’s Theatre Association was thus born.
Cont.
• IPTA’s cultural movement portrayed contemporary reality
through visual art, traditional art forms with modern thought.
• It created awareness for socio-political change.
• The members of IPTA who favoured Art for life (Kala Jeevan
Ke Liye) developed a new vision towards arts and aesthetics.
They established a new definition of the relationship between
art, artists and the audience.
• IPTA absorbed the live elements of Indian culture,
established relationship with the progressive assets of world
culture and itself contributed to the world of art by its
Group Theatres
About
• The Indian People's Theatre Association dispersed in 1947. However, the principal members
continued to carry its legacy by forming several groups with similar ideology. 
• Ahindra Chowdhuri, Sombhu Mitra and Tripti Mitra were the leading members of the
group Bohurupee. Raktakarabi, Tahar Nam Ti Ranjana, Char Adhyay (written
by Rabindranath Tagore) were some of the earlier productions of Bohurupee. 
• Utpal Dutt led another faction of artists and went to create classics like Tiner
Talowar and Kallol.
• In 1950s and 1960s, many critically acclaimed productions were staged, which used
international literature including the works of Anton Chekhov, Luigi Pirandello, Henrik
Ibsen and Bertolt Brecht.
• According to one critic, the productions had the "right mix of democratic politics — with
certain groups drifting towards a revolutionary rhetoric — and humane ideals, based on
literature drawn from the world over".
• Notable group theatres include the Little Theatre Group, Gandharba, Theatre Commune,
Amulya Natyagosthi, Calcutta Theatre, Nandikar.