Orgman Lesson 6

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT
Quarter 1 – Lesson 6:
Planning Techniques and Tools in
Business Decision-making
PLANNING TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS AND THEIR
APPLICATIONS
Forecasting
According to Schermerhorn (2008), forecasting
is an attempt to predict what may happen in the
future. All planning types, without exception,
may use of forecasting. Forecasts used may be
either quantitative or qualitative.
Opinions of prominent economists are used in
qualitative forecasts while mathematical calculations
and statistical analyses of surveys/researches are used
in quantitative forecasts. These, however, are just aids
to planning and must be treated with caution. As the
name implies, forecasts are predictions and may be
inaccurate, at times, due to errors of human judgment.
CONTINGENCY PLANS
Contingency factors may offer alternative courses of

action when the unexpected happens or when things
go wrong. Contingency plans must be prepared by
managers, ready for implementation when things do
not turn out as they should be. Contingency factors
called “trigger points” indicate when the prepared
alternative plan should be implemented.
SCENARIO PLANNING
Planning for future states of affairs is a long-

term version of contingency planning and is
also known as scenario planning. Several future
states of affairs must be identified, and
alternative plans must be prepared in order to
meet the changes or challenges in the future.
This is a big help for organizations because it allows
them to plan and make necessary adjustments in their
strategies and operations. Some examples of changes
or challenges that may arise in the future scenarios
are environmental pollution, human rights violations,
climate and weather changes, earthquake damages to
communities, and others.
BENCHMARKING
Benchmarking is another planning technique
that generally involves external comparisons of
a company’s practices and technologies with
those of other companies. Its main purpose is to
find out what other people or organizations do
well and then plan how to incorporate these
practices into the company’s operations.
A common benchmarking technique is to search for best
practices used by other organizations that enabled them to
achieve superior performance. This is known as external
benchmarking. Internal benchmarking is also practiced by
some organizations when they encourage all their
employees working in their different work units to learn
and improve by sharing one another’s best practices
PARTICIPATORY PLANNING
Participatory planning is a planning process that
includes the people who will be affected by the plans
and those who will be asked to implement them in
all planning steps. Creativity, increased acceptance
and understanding of plans, and commitment to the
success of plans are the positive results of this
planning technique.
DECISION-MAKING
Decision-making is defined as the process by

which different possible solutions or
alternatives are identified and the most feasible
solution or course of action is finalized. It is an
integral part of planning.
FACTORS AFFECTING DECISION-MAKING
1. Timelines
The quality of decisions depends on how much
time has been devoted to making decisions.
Most of the time decision-makers must take
decisions in a limited time frame as instructed
by the management.
Due to the time limit, decision-makers are
not able to collect all the necessary
information that influences decisions and
are, also, not able to look for more
alternatives.
2. VALUE AND BELIEFS OF DECISION-MAKER
In addition, the quality of decisions also

depends upon the value and belief system of
the decision-makers. Anyone’s reaction to a
particular situation is more likely to depend on
the individual’s values, likes and dislikes,
thoughts, and beliefs.
It is also a behavioral aspect of the decision-
makers and reflects in their decisions related
to goals, strategy-making activities. So, value-
based decisions help in prioritizing tasks and
making goals, identifying different solutions to
problems, and finalizing the best solution or
alternative.
4. Other factors like budget, manpower,
values of management also influence decision-
making.
TYPES OF DECISIONS
Structured or Programmed Decision
It is a decision that is repetitive and can be
handled using a routine approach. Such
repetitive decision applies to resolving
structured problems which are straightforward,
familiar, and easily defined.
For example, a restaurant customer complains
about the dirty utensils the waiter has given
him. This is not an unusual situation, and,
therefore, standardized solutions to such a
problem may be readily available.
UNSTRUCTURED OR NON-PROGRAMMED
DECISION
It is applied to the resolution of problems that

are new or unusual, and for which information
is complete. Such non-programmed decisions
are described to be unique, nonrecurring and
need custom-made decisions.
For example, a hotel manager is asked to make
a decision regarding the building of a new hotel
branch in another city to meet the demands of
businessmen there. This is an unstructured
problem and, therefore, need unstructured or
non-programmed decisions to resolve it.
TYPES OF DECISION-MAKING CONDITIONS
Certainty Conditions
These are ideal conditions in deciding
problems; these are situations in which a
manager can make precise decisions because
the results of all alternatives are known.
For example, bank interests are made known to
clients, so it is easier for business managers to
decide on the problem of where to deposit their
company’s funds. The bank which offers the
highest interest rate, therefore, is the obvious
choice of the manager when asked to decide.
Risk or Uncertainty Conditions
These are more common condition in deciding
problems. Risk or uncertainty conditions
compel the decision maker to do estimates
regarding the possible occurrence of certain
outcomes that may affect his or her chosen
solution to a problem.
Historical data from his or her own experiences
and other secondary information may be used as
bases for decisions to be made by the decision
maker under such risk conditions. For example,
a manager is asked to invest some of their
company funds in the money market offered by
a financial institution.
Risk factors must be considered, because of the
uncertainty conditions involved, before
deciding – whether to invest or not in the said
money market.
THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS ACCORDING TO ROBBINS
AND COULTER
Step 1: Identify the Problem. The problem may

be defined as a puzzling circumstance or a
discrepancy between an existing and a desired
condition.
Step 2: Identify the Decision Criteria. These are
important or relevant to resolving the identified
problem.
Step 3: Allocate Weights to the Criteria. This is
done in order to give the decision maker the
correct priority in making the decision.
Step 4: Develop Alternatives. This step requires
the decision maker to list down possible
alternatives that could help resolve the identified
problem.
Step 5: Analyze the Alternatives. Alternatives
must be carefully evaluated by the decision
maker using the criteria identified in Step 2.
Step 6: Select an Alternative. This is the
process of choosing the best alternative or the
one which has the highest total points in Step 5.
Step 7: Implement the Chosen Alternative. This
step puts the decision into action. Changes in
the environment must be observed and assessed,
especially in cases of long-term decisions, to
see if the chosen alternative is still the best one.
Step 8: Evaluate Decision Effectiveness. This is
the last step and involves the evaluation of the
outcome of the result of the decision to see if
the problem was resolved. If the problem still
exists, the manager must assess what went
wrong and, if needed, repeat a step or the whole
process.
THANK YOU!!!

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ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

Contingency factors may offer alternative courses of

Planning for future states of affairs is a long-

Decision-making is defined as the process by

In addition, the quality of decisions also

It is applied to the resolution of problems that

Step 1: Identify the Problem. The problem may

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