QUARTER 2

PRACTICAL
RESEARCH 2
1. Quantitative Research
Design
WHAT’S IN?
Quantitative research is more
systematic and controlled than
qualitative research. However,
these two research methods
have a statement of the
problem to investigate.
It is assumed that you are
capable to state a research
problem, write a background of
the study, scope and
delimitation, hypothesize, make
a conceptual framework, and
review related literature.
Each type of research has a unique
design to follow that will also lead
the direction of sampling procedure,
data gathering, and data analysis.
Each research type also aims to
answer specific research questions;
how it will be answered is
determined by its design.
Important considerations also
are the variables of the study.
The type of variables provides
paradigm (your conceptual
framework), which helps the
researcher decide on what will
be the design of the study.
WHAT IS IT?
Research design is defined as
the logical and coherent overall
strategy that the researcher uses
to integrate all the components
of the research study (Barrot,
2017, p 102).
In quantitative research, you are
going to have a great deal of
abstraction and numerical
analysis. According to Fraenkel
and Wallen (2007, p 15), the
research designs in quantitative
research are mostly pre-
established.
There are two types of
Quantitative Research Design,
the non – experimental and
experimental.
1. Non – experimental Research
Design. According to Kowalczyk
(2015), non – experimental research
means there is a predictor variable of
group of subjects that cannot be
manipulated by the experimenter. This
suggests that different routes should be
accustomed draw conclusions, like
correlation, survey or case study.
2. Experimental Research Design
It is guided by a hypothesis. Sometimes
experimental research can have several
hypotheses. A hypothesis is a statement
to be proven or disapproved. Once that
statement is formed experiments are
begun to seek out whether the
statement is true or not.
Non-Experimental Research
Design
1. Survey Research
2. Correlational Research
3. Descriptive Research
4. Comparative Research
5. Ex – Post – facto Research
1. Survey Research- Uses interviews,
questionnaires, and sampling polls.
Allows the researchers to review
behavior and then present the findings
in an accurate way. Usually expressed
in percentage. Can be conducted
around one group specifically or used
to compare several groups.
2. Correlational Research-
Tests for the relationships
between two variables.
Determines what the effect of
one on the opposite that affects
the relationship. Predicts the
magnitude of the association.
3. Descriptive Research- Is
oftentimes as a survey or a
normative approach. Is a study
of prevailing conditions.
4. Comparative Research-
Examines patterns of similarities
and differences across a moderate
number of cases. Uses limited
number of cases. Concerns to
establish familiarity with each case
included in a study.
5. Ex – Post – facto Research-
Examines patterns of similarities
and differences across a moderate
number of cases. Used in studies
which measure the pre – existing
effects. Is a study where the
researcher has no control over the
variables.
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
DESIGN
1. Quasi - Experimental Research
2. True Experimental Research
1. Quasi - Experimental Research-
It involves selecting groups, upon
which a variable is tested without
any random pre – selection
process. It is a study where the
groups are known to be already
established before the research.
2. True Experimental Research- Is
thought to be the most accurate
type of experimental research.
Establishes cause and effect
relationship. Contains three
criteria: control and experimental
group; researcher – manipulated
variable; random assignment.
 QUIZ

½ sheet of paper.
Lengthwise
Directions: Determine the
quantitative research design
appropriate for the sample research
titles.
1. Relationship between Academic
Stressors and Learning Preferences
of Public Senior High School
Students in Bataan
2. Impact of the Implementation of
Covid – 19 Health Protocols in
Public Markets on Consumer
Behaviors
3. Effects of Story Telling on
Quality of Sleep of Children
4. Measuring the Gadgets Usage of
Grade 11 Students at Home during
Covid Community Quarantine
5. Level of Academic Achievement
of Senior High Schools in Balanga
in Different Learning Modalities
6. A Study on Internet Usage of
Adolescents in relation to
Aggression and Psychological Well
– being.
7. A Study on the Preparation of
Student Teachers to Work with
Diverse Population.
8. A Study of the Use of Library
and Internet as Sources of
Information by Students.
9. Evaluating the Cooperative
Component in Cooperative
Learning.
10. The effectiveness of family
planning programs.
ANSWERS.

1. Relationship between Academic

Stressors and Learning Preferences
of Public Senior High School
Students in Bataan –
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
2. Impact of the Implementation of
Covid – 19 Health Protocols in Public
Markets on Consumer Behaviors-
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH

3. Effects of Story Telling on Quality of

Sleep of Children. – TRUE
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARC H
4. Measuring the Gadgets Usage of
Grade 11 Students at Home during
Covid Community Quarantine –
SURVEY RESEARCH
5. Level of Academic Achievement
of Senior High Schools in Balanga
in Different Learning Modalities –
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
6. A Study on Internet Usage of
Adolescents in relation to Aggression
and Psychological Well – being. -
CORRELATIONNAL RESEARCH

7. A Study on the Preparation of

Student Teachers to Work with Diverse
Population. – DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH
8. A Study of the Use of Library
and Internet as Sources of
Information by Students. –
COMPARATIVE RESEARCH
9. Evaluating the Cooperative
Component in Cooperative
Learning. –QUASI
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
10. The effectiveness of family
planning programs. – TRUE
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Directions: Choose the best
answer. Write the letter of your
choice on a separate sheet of paper.
1. This is a type of non –
experimental research where the
researcher uses interviews,
questionnaires, and sampling polls
to get a sense of behavior with
intense precision.
A. Comparative C. Descriptive
B. Correlational D. Survey
2. This research design tests the
relationship between two variables.
A. Comparative C. Descriptive
B. Correlational D. Survey
3. Why is correlational research used to test
between two variables?
A. It is done to establish the effect of one on
the other and how that affects the relationship.
B. It is used to survey or do a normative
approach to study prevailing conditions.
C. It intends to examine patterns of similarities
and differences across a moderate number of
cases.
D. All of the above.
4. Which of the non – experimental research is
used to examine the patterns of similarities
and differences across a moderate number of
cases?
A. Ex – Post – facto C. Correlational
B. Descriptive D. Comparative
5. Which of the following research design
involves selection of groups, upon which a
variable is tested without random pre –
selection process?
A. Quasi – Experimental C. True
Experimental
B. Quasi – Non – Experimental D. True – Non
– Experimental
6. The researcher would like to know further
the type of social media used between the
male and female SHS students of Bataan
National High School. What is the appropriate
research design to be used in his study?
A. Quasi – Experimental C. Descriptive
B. Experimental D. Correlational
7. What is the difference between quasi – experimental
and experimental research?
A. Only one dependent variable is used in experimental,
while multiple dependent variables can be used in quasi –
experimental research.
B. Intact groups are used in experimental, while quasi –
experimental randomly assigned individuals into groups.
C. The researcher controls the intervention in the
experimental group, but not in quasi – experimental
research.
D. Participants for groups are randomly selected in
experimental, but not in quasi – experimental research.
8. What research design aims to determine a cause
from already existing effects?
A. Correlational C. Ex – Post – Facto
B. Descriptive D. Quasi – Experimental
ANSWERS
1. This is a type of non –
experimental research where the
researcher uses interviews,
questionnaires, and sampling polls
to get a sense of behavior with
intense precision.
A. Comparative C. Descriptive
B. Correlational D. Survey
2. This research design tests the
relationship between two variables.
A. Comparative C. Descriptive
B. Correlational D. Survey
3. Why is correlational research used to test
between two variables?
A. It is done to establish the effect of one on
the other and how that affects the relationship.
B. It is used to survey or do a normative
approach to study prevailing conditions.
C. It intends to examine patterns of similarities
and differences across a moderate number of
cases.
D. All of the above.
4. Which of the non – experimental research is
used to examine the patterns of similarities
and differences across a moderate number of
cases?
A. Ex – Post – facto C. Correlational
B. Descriptive D. Comparative
5. Which of the following research design
involves selection of groups, upon which a
variable is tested without random pre –
selection process?
A. Quasi – Experimental C. True
Experimental
B. Quasi – Non – Experimental D. True – Non
– Experimental
6. The researcher would like to know further
the type of social media used between the
male and female SHS students of Bataan
National High School. What is the appropriate
research design to be used in his study?
A. Quasi – Experimental C. Descriptive
B. Experimental D. Correlational
7. What is the difference between quasi – experimental
and experimental research?
A. Only one dependent variable is used in experimental,
while multiple dependent variables can be used in quasi –
experimental research.
B. Intact groups are used in experimental, while quasi –
experimental randomly assigned individuals into groups.
C. The researcher controls the intervention in the
experimental group, but not in quasi – experimental
research.
D. Participants for groups are randomly selected in
experimental, but not in quasi – experimental research.
8. What research design aims to determine a cause
from already existing effects?
A. Correlational C. Ex – Post – Facto
B. Descriptive D. Quasi – Experimental
8. What research design aims to determine a cause
from already existing effects?
A. Correlational C. Ex – Post – Facto
B. Descriptive D. Quasi – Experimental
2. Sampling Procedure
the Sample
Introduction
Do you remember your lesson on
writing scope and delimitation? In that
lesson, you stated the subjects,
participants, or respondents of your
study. You also described their
characteristics which qualify them to be
the source of your research data.
The next question that you have to
answer is, how many of the subjects
participants, or respondents should be
selected as a source of data? This
lesson will teach you how to describe
sampling procedures in quantitative
research. Always remember that the
sampling procedure must be aligned
to your chosen research design.
Population and Sample

The first step in determining the

sample size is identifying the
population of the topic of interest. The
population is the totality of all the
objects, elements, persons, and
characteristics under consideration.
There are two types of population used
in research: target population and
accessible population. The target
population is the actual population, for
example, all Senior High School
Students enrolled in Accountancy,
Business and Management (ABM)
Strand in the Division of Bataan.
While the accessible population is a
portion of the population in which the
researcher has reasonable access, for
example all Senior High School
enrolled in ABM strand at Bataan
National High School.
When the whole population is too
costly or time–consuming or
impractical to consider by the
researcher, then, a sample
representative is identified. Sample is
the specific group that you will collect
data from. Its size is always less than
the population.
For example, the sample that you will
be using are the two (2) sections of
ABM class of Bataan National High
School.

Sampling
Sampling pertains to the systematic
process of selecting the group to be
analyzed in the research study.
Sampling, in research, is a word that
refers to the method or procedures of
choosing respondents to answer the
question. According to Paris (2013), the
bigger the group from where you can
choose the sample is called population,
and sampling frame is the list of
members of such population from
where you will get the sample.
There are two kinds of sampling: the
probability sampling or unbiased
sampling and non – probability
sampling.

1. Probability Sampling
This kind of sampling requires a
researcher like you to have a list of
your target respondents focused on
your study.
This sampling provides an equal chance of
participation in the selection process given to
every member listed in the sampling frame.
As a researcher, always remember that the
smaller the sample is, the higher chance of
sampling error. Therefore, the bigger the
number of respondents will avoid sample
errors.
2. Non – probability Sampling

It disregards random selection of

respondents. According to Edmond (2013),
the subjects are chosen based on the
availability or the purpose of the study, in
some cases it is the discretion of the
researcher.
PROBALITY SAMPING

1. Simple Probability Sampling

2. Systematic Probability Sampling
3. Stratified Probability Sampling
4. Cluster Probability Sampling
NON- PROBALITY SAMPING

1. Quota Sampling
2. Voluntary Sampling
3. Purposive or Judgmental Sampling
4. Availability Sampling
5. Snowball Sampling
1. Simple Probability Sampling
- uses a pure chance selection process.
- runs from making a list of all respondents, writing
each name on the card, choosing cards through a
pure chance selection.
- uses any of the following ways: fish bowl
technique, roulette wheel, or table of random
numbers.
Example: population: 30; sample: 15
The researcher may write all 30 names in a clean
sheet of paper, place it in a bowl and draw 15 papers
out of the bowl.
2. Systematic Probability Sampling
- uses sampling interval that will be used as
quasi-random selection method.
- runs from determining sampling interval,
determining the number of population and
sample and computing for the sampling ratio.
Example: population: 1500; sample: 150
150/1500 = 0.1 x 100 = 10%. The sampling
interval is 10.
3. Stratified Probability Sampling
- is used in a study needing group – by –
group analysis.
- divides population according to strata or
groups before selecting samples.
Example: group the population according to
age, gender, etc.
4. Cluster Probability Sampling
- samples economically while retaining the
characteristics of a probability sample.
- runs through multiple clusters of people
from the chosen population will be created to
have homogenous characteristics.
Example: population: 1000; sample: 150
The researcher can randomly select at least
three (3) groups with 50 participants to
represent the sample
1. Quota Sampling
- is used when the researcher knows the
characteristics of the target population.
- is used when the budget is tight and time is
limited for the study.
Example: population: 200 (100 males and
100 females) sample: 100 (25% males and
75% females).
2. Voluntary Sampling
- is a sampling technique wherein the subjects for the
study are the ones volunteering to be part of the
sample.
- has no selection process.
Example: The researcher puts out a request from the
members of the population to join the sample, and
the people will decide whether or not to be in
sample.
3. Purposive or Judgmental Sampling
- is used when the researcher chooses the
people who are sure to correspond to the
objectives of the study.
Example: The study is about choosing a
course in college. The researcher will
interview students who will pursue college
education.
4. Availability Sampling
- is used when the researcher automatically includes
the persons who show willingness to participate in
the study.
- Also known as convenience sampling
Example: A marketing student needs to get feedback
regarding the taste of a new variant of certain food
endorsed in the market. He can create an online
survey, send a link to all the contacts on his phone,
share the link in social media, and talk to people he
met on a daily basis.
5. Snowball Sampling
- does not give a specific set of samples.
- is used for a study involving unspecified group of
people.
Example: a researcher is conducting a study among
homeless Badjao families in Bataan. The first
homeless Badjao family he met will be the primary
data. The researcher can collect data from other
homeless Badjao families who are referred by the
first Badjao family. Referral of other homeless
Badjao family may continue until the researcher
completed the number of Badjao families he will
include in the study.
QUIZ
Directions: Choose the best
answer. Write the letter of your
choice on a separate sheet of paper.
1. It refers to the method or procedure
of choosing respondents that will
answer the question in the study.

A. Population C. Sampling
C. Research D. Sampling frame
2. Why probability sampling is the best
type of sampling technique used in a
research study?
A. There is higher complexity
compared to non-probability sampling.
B. There is absence of systematic error
and sampling bias.
C. It is very cost-and-time effective.
D. Both A and B.
3. Which of the following is the type of
probability sampling that uses a pure
chance selection process?
A. Systematic sampling
B. Stratified sampling
C. Simple random sampling
D. Cluster sampling
4. When do you use non – probability
sampling in your study?
A. When time is limited to conduct
research or there is budget constraint.
B. When the intention is not to generate
results that will generalize the entire
population.
C. When there is a need to observe
whether a particular issue needs in-depth
analysis.
D. All of these.
5. What sampling technique is used
when the researcher would like to
consider giving equal chances to the
members of the accessible population
being selected as part of the study?
A. Systematic C. Simple Random
B. Stratified D. Cluster
6. When can we consider a research
sample as the “best”?
A. Systematically chosen
B. Representative of the population
C. Purposely selected
D. Conveniently represented
7. What is the main objective of using
stratified random sampling?
A. Sample is proportionately drawn from the
different categories of the population.
B. Sample is taken from an accessible
population than the target population.
C. Every individual will be given an equal
chance to be selected.
D. Those who will possibly respond to
treatment are chosen.
8. It refers to the portion of population
in which the researcher has reasonable
access.
A.Accessible Population
B.Research Design
C.Sample
D. Target Population
9. Which of the following is NOT
under probability sampling technique?
A. Cluster sampling
B. Quota sampling
C. Stratified sampling
D. Systematic sampling
10. This sampling technique
automatically considers the respondents
who show willingness to answer the
questions of the researcher.
A. Voluntary sampling
B. Systematic sampling
C. Simple random sampling
D. Availability sampling
11. Why do we need to consider bigger
number of respondents in research study?
A. Because it will make the research
more challenging for the researcher.
B. Because research is time consuming
and cost–efficient.
C. Because it will make the research
process easier.
D. Because it will avoid sample errors.
12. It is a sampling technique where
it uses sampling ratio in selecting its
sample.
A. Cluster sampling
B. Simple random sampling
C. Stratified sampling
D. Systematic sampling
13. It is a sampling technique
wherein the researcher chooses
people who correspond to the
objectives of their study.
A. Availability sampling
B. Purposive sampling
C. Quota sampling
D. Voluntary sampling
14. Which of the following is NOT a
non – probability sampling
technique?
A. Voluntary Sampling
B. Systematic Sampling
C. Purposive Sampling
D. Availability Sampling
15. Is the list of members of such
population from where you will get
the sample.
a. Sampling Procedure
b. Sampling Technique
c. Sampling Frame
d. Conceptual Framework
ANSWERS
1. It refers to the method or procedure
of choosing respondents that will
answer the question in the study.

A. Population C. Sampling
C. Research D. Sampling frame
2. Why probability sampling is the best
type of sampling technique used in a
research study?
A. There is higher complexity
compared to non-probability sampling.
B. There is absence of systematic error
and sampling bias.
C. It is very cost-and-time effective.
D. Both A and B.
3. Which of the following is the type of
probability sampling that uses a pure
chance selection process?
A. Systematic sampling
B. Stratified sampling
C. Simple random sampling
D. Cluster sampling
4. When do you use non – probability
sampling in your study?
A. When time is limited to conduct
research or there is budget constraint.
B. When the intention is not to generate
results that will generalize the entire
population.
C. When there is a need to observe
whether a particular issue needs in-depth
analysis.
D. All of these.
5. What sampling technique is used
when the researcher would like to
consider giving equal chances to the
members of the accessible population
being selected as part of the study?
A. Systematic C. Simple Random
B. Stratified D. Cluster
6. When can we consider a research
sample as the “best”?
A. Systematically chosen
B. Representative of the population
C. Purposely selected
D. Conveniently represented
7. What is the main objective of using
stratified random sampling?
A. Sample is proportionately drawn from the
different categories of the population.
B. Sample is taken from an accessible
population than the target population.
C. Every individual will be given an equal
chance to be selected.
D. Those who will possibly respond to
treatment are chosen.
8. It refers to the portion of population
in which the researcher has reasonable
access.
A.Accessible Population
B.Research Design
C.Sample
D. Target Population
9. Which of the following is NOT
under probability sampling technique?
A. Cluster sampling
B. Quota sampling
C. Stratified sampling
D. Systematic sampling
10. This sampling technique
automatically considers the respondents
who show willingness to answer the
questions of the researcher.
A. Voluntary sampling
B. Systematic sampling
C. Simple random sampling
D. Availability sampling
11. Why do we need to consider bigger
number of respondents in research study?
A. Because it will make the research
more challenging for the researcher.
B. Because research is time consuming
and cost–efficient.
C. Because it will make the research
process easier.
D. Because it will avoid sample errors.
12. It is a sampling technique where
it uses sampling ratio in selecting its
sample.
A. Cluster sampling
B. Simple random sampling
C. Stratified sampling
D. Systematic sampling
13. It is a sampling technique
wherein the researcher chooses
people who correspond to the
objectives of their study.
A. Availability sampling
B. Purposive sampling
C. Quota sampling
D. Voluntary sampling
14. Which of the following is NOT a
non – probability sampling
technique?
A. Voluntary Sampling
B. Systematic Sampling
C. Purposive Sampling
D. Availability Sampling
15. Is the list of members of such
population from where you will get
the sample.
a. Sampling Procedure
b. Sampling Technique
c. Sampling Frame
d. Conceptual Framework
3. Developing an
Instrument
Developing a good instrument is the
most crucial part in conducting a research
study. When an instrument is poorly
designed, it may lead to inaccurate data
that may produce misguided conclusions.

However, developing an instrument takes

a lot of work and requires advanced
preparation. Therefore, researchers must
be careful when developing their
instrument.
Developing Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a research instrument

wherein a researcher poses a set of pre-
determined questions. It has typically 3
parts.

1. General instructions
2. Profile of the respondent
3. Body/Questionnaire items
Part 1: General Instructions

– the purpose of giving general

instructions is to give the participant
an idea of the purpose of your
research and gives an overview of the
topic of your questionnaire. This part
includes:
1. Title/Introduction of the researcher
– Introduce the title of your study and
you may give your name and the
institution you are affiliated with.

2. Purpose of the questionnaire –

State the purpose or aim of your
study.
3. Confidentiality statement – Assure
that the participant’s responses will
remain confidential.
4. Voluntary participation – Make the
participants aware that they don’t
have to complete the questionnaire,
or they don’t have to answer any
items that they are uncomfortable
with.
5. How to submit the questionnaire –
Instruct the participants on how to
return the questionnaire if the
researcher is not present when it is
administered.
Part 2: Profile of the respondent –
this asks the personal information of
the participant. It may also be called
demographic characteristics or bio-
data. Consider which variables are
relevant and capture information only
that are important to your study.
Part 3: Body/Questionnaire Items –
this contains the questions or items
that need to be answered by the
participant.

Consider the following when

constructing the questionnaire items:
Clarity
• The questions are direct and
specific.
• Only one question is asked at a
time.
• The participants can understand
what is being asked.
• There are no double-barreled
questions (two questions in one)
Wordiness
• Questions are concise.
• There are no unnecessary words.

Negative Wording
• Questions are asked using the
affirmative (e.g., Instead of asking
“Which methods are not used?”, the
researcher asks, “Which methods are
used?”)
Overlapping responses
• No response covers more than one
choice.
• All possibilities are considered.
• There are no confusing questions.
Balance
• The questions are unbiased and do not
lead the participants to a response. The
questions are asked using a neutral
tone.

Use of Jargon
• The terms used are understandable by
the target population.
• There are no clichés or hyperbole in
the wording of the questions
Appropriateness of Responses Listed
• The choices listed allow participants
to respond appropriately.
• The responses apply to all situations
or offer a way for those to respond with
unique situations.

Use of Technical Language

• The use of technical language is
minimal and appropriate.
Developing Interview Questions

An Interview is a research instrument

wherein the researcher verbally asks
questions to participants of the study to
answer what the research is trying to
look for.

Order of Interview Questions:

First set of questions

Opening questions that establish

friendly atmosphere or mood of the
participant.

Example:
How are you today?
Second set of questions
: Open ended questions that generate
the participant’s views or ideas about
the topic.

Example:
What ideas do you have about
Distance Learning
Third set of questions
: Close ended questions that elicit
specific answers about the research
topic or questions answerable with
‘Yes’ or ‘No’.

Example: “
What modality are you comfortable
with in Distance Learning
Fourth
set of questions : Closing questions
that give the participants a chance
to give their views or comments
about the topic.

Example: “
What has been your overall
impression on the new normal in
education
QUIZ
Directions: Write True if the
statement is correct and False if it is
not.
_________1. Items in a questionnaire
should not be biased or lead
participants to a response.
_________2. An open-ended question
is likely to start with, or include, one
of the following words: what, how or
why.
_________3. In questionnaires, the
profiles of the subjects must fit the
topic.
_________4. Questions should be as
neutral as possible.
_________5. Participants are not
allowed to explain their answers
during interviews
_________6. Get the participants
involved in the interview before
asking direct questions about the
topic.
_________7. The researcher must
always use jargons or technical terms
in questionnaires.
_________8. Questions are asked
using affirmative language.
_________9. The researcher does not
need to establish a friendly
atmosphere before the interview.
_________10. The researcher needs
to assure that the participant’s
responses will remain confidential.
Directions: Consider whether the
following are good or poor survey
questions.

_____1. “Are illegal drugs bad for

teens?”
_____2. “Which effective education
strategies prevent drug abuse in
teens?
_____3. “When tested for efficiency
and durability how does ‘Brand X’
and ‘Brand Y’ compare?”
_____4. “Is Brand X better than
Brand Y?”
_____5. “Is owning a pet good for the
elderly?”
_____6. “In what ways does owning
a pet improve the quality of life for
the elderly?”
______7. “Which national park is the
best?”
______8. “What features do most of
popular national parks have in
common?”
______9. “How much do you support
the RH bill?”
______10. “What is your view on the
enactment of Reproductive Health
Law in the Philippines?”
ANSWERS

1.True
2.True
3.True
4.True
5.False
6.True
7.False
8.True
9.False
10.True
ANSWER: ADDITIONAL ACTIVITIES

1.poor
2.good
3.good
4.poor
5.poor
6.good
7.poor
8.good
9.Poor
10. good
 4. Validity and
Reliability of the
Research
Instrument
Reliability and validity are the two
ways that researchers evaluate the
quality of an instrument.

Briefly, reliability is the degree to

which the instrument is consistent
whereas validity is how well the
instrument measures what it is
supposed to measure.
One example of validity and
reliability is an alarm clock that rings
at 7:00 a.m. each morning, but is set
for 6:30 a.m. It is very reliable (it
consistently rings the same time each
day), but is not valid (it is not ringing
at the desired time). It's important to
consider validity and reliability of the
instruments when either conducting
or evaluating a research.
 Attributes of Reliability

Homogeneity (or internal

consistency)

-The extent to which all the items on

a scale measure one construct
Stability
-The consistency of results using an
instrument with repeated testing

Equivalence
-Consistency among responses of
multiple users of an instrument, or
among alternate forms of an
instrument
Homogeneity or internal consistency
can be assessed with the use of split-
half reliability, Kuder-Richardson
coefficient and Cronbach's α.
Split-half reliability- Here, the
results of a test, or instrument, are
divided in half Correlations are
calculated comparing both halves.
Strong correlations indicate high
reliability, while weak correlations
indicate the instrument may not be
reliable.
Kuder-Richardson test- It is a more
complicated version of the split-half
test. In this process the average of all
possible split half combinations is
determined and a correlation between
0–1 is generated. This test is more
accurate than the split-half test but
can only be completed on questions
with two answers (eg, yes or no, 0 or
1).
Cronbach's α- It is the most commonly
used test to determine the internal
consistency of an instrument. In this test,
the average of all correlations in every
combination of split-halves is determined.
Instruments with questions that have more
than two responses can be used in this test.
The Cronbach's α result is a number
between 0 and 1. An acceptable reliability
score is one that is 0.7 and higher.
Stability can be tested with the use of test–
retest and parallel or alternate-form
reliability testing.

• Test–retest reliability- It is assessed when

an instrument is given to the same
participants more than once under similar
circumstances or situations. A statistical
comparison is made between participant's
test scores for each of the times they have
answered it.
Parallel-form reliability (or alternate-form
reliability)- It is similar to test–retest reliability
except that a different form of the original
instrument is given to participants in subsequent
tests. The domain, or concepts being tested are the
same in both versions of the instrument, but the
wording of items is different. For an instrument to
demonstrate stability there should be a high
correlation between the scores each time a
participant completes the test. Generally speaking,
a correlation coefficient of less than 0.3 signifies a
weak correlation, 0.3–0.5 is moderate and greater
than 0.5 is strong.
Equivalence is tested through inter-rater
reliability.
Inter-rater reliability- This test includes a
process for qualitatively determining the level of
agreement between two or more observers. A
good example of this is the scores of judges for a
competition. The level of consistency across all
judges in the scores given to the participants is the
measure of inter-rater reliability. An example in
research is when researchers are asked to give a
score for the relevancy of each item on an
instrument. Consistency in their scores relates to
the level of inter-rater reliability of the instrument.
There are four types of validity.
These are described in Table 2 below.

Content validity
• The extent to which a research
instrument accurately measures all
aspects of a study
Construct validity
• The extent to which a research
instrument (or tool) accurately
measures what it intends to
measure
Criterion validity
• The extent to which a research
instrument is related to other
instruments that measure the same
variables
Face validity
• The extent to which a research
instrument appears to be valid and
measure what it is supposed to
measure
Ways to improve Validity and
Reliability:
1. Define your goals and objectives
clearly.
2. Match your instrument to your
goals and objectives. Additionally,
have the test reviewed by others to
obtain feedback from an external
party who is less invested in the
instrument.
3. Assess for troublesome wording, or
other technical errors.
4. Compare your instrument with
other measures, or data that may be
available.
Adopting or Adapting an Instrument
The researcher may also choose to
adopt or adapt pre-existing
instruments to save time and effort in
developing a new one. To use an
instrument that another researcher has
developed and validated is a good
way to determine that the instruments
used in a research study are both
reliable and valid.
This will help you in three ways:
1. You can ensure that you have
accurately measured the variables
you are studying.
2. The significance of your study can
be related to previous research that
has already been conducted in your
field.
3. It saves time and energy for not
having to develop a new instrument.
Adopting an instrument requires very
little effort and is quite simple.

However, there still might be a few

modifications that are necessary even
though an instrument is adopted.
When adopting an instrument, the
researcher must include the following
in the instrument description:
• Who developed the instrument?
• Who validated the instrument?
• What are the other studies that have
used the instrument?

Adapting an instrument requires more

changes than adopting an instrument. In
this situation, the researcher follows the
general format of another instrument but
adds items, removes items, and/or
changes the content of each item.
When adapting an instrument, the
researcher should report the same
information in the Instruments section as
when adopting the instrument, but
should also include the following in the
instrument description:
• What changes were made to the
instrument?
• Why were they changed?
ASSESSMENT
Directions: Identify the word or group of
words that corresponds to the following
statements.
______________1. It is the extent to
which a research instrument accurately
measures what it intends to measure.
______________2. It is the consistency
of results using an instrument with
repeated testing.
______________3. It is the extent to
which a research instrument accurately
measures all aspects of a study.
______________4. It is the consistency
among responses of multiple users of an
instrument, or among alternate forms of
an instrument.
______________5. It is the extent to
which a research instrument appears to
be valid and measure what it is supposed
to measure.
______________6. It is the degree to
which the instrument is consistent.
______________7. It is how well the
instrument measures what it is supposed
to measure.
______________8. It is the extent to
which a research instrument is related to
other instruments that measure the same
variables.
______________9. It is the extent to
which all the items on a scale measure
one construct.
______________10. This test includes a
process for qualitatively determining the
level of agreement between two or more
observers.
ANSWERS
1.Construct validity
2.Stability
3.Content validity
4.Equivalence
5.Face validity
6.Reliability
7.Validity
8.Criterion validity
9.Homogeneity
10.Inter-rater reliability