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 Geological Processes
- are the natural forces that shape the physical planet such
processes often occur at enormous scales – spanning millions of
centuries and thousands of kilometres.

Geological Timescale
- the geological timescale (GTS) is a 'calendar' of all of
Earth's history, descending chronologically from modern day to
the formation of earth. The GTS subdivides all time into
abstract units, which are (in descending order of duration):
eons, eras, periods, epochs, and ages.
 Example of Geological Timescale;
Currently, Earth is in:

The Phanerozoic Eon ,The Cenozoic Era, The Quaternary Period,

The Anthropocene Epoch
The Phanerozoic Eon
The Cenozoic Era
The Quaternary Period
 Why geologists study earth
processes?
Geologists are 'earth detectives'. Just like
other detectives, we need clues that can help
us explain what happened in the past.
Studying what happens at the coast, in rivers
or in the desert can help us figure out how
landscapes change and sedimentary rocks
form.
 Deep Earth Process
( Internal or Endogenetic Earth Process )

I. Heat
- Radioactive decay
- Gravitational energy released during acretion and formation of earth

II. Mantle Convection

- the mantle is heated by the core below it. As it is heated, its density
decreases, so it rises towards the crust. But once the mantle has risen,
it begins to cool back down and sink, dragging the crust's tectonic plates
above it. This circular movement is known as a convection current.
Radioactive Decay
The process in which a
radioactive atom
spontaneously gives off
radiation in the form of
energy or particles to reach a
more stable state. It is
important to distinguish
between radioactive material
and the radiation it gives off.
Gravitational energy released during
acretion and formation of earth
Small particles drew together, bound by the force of
gravity, into larger particles, according to the core
accreation model. The solar wind swept away lighter
elements, such as hydrogen and helium from the
closer regions, leaving only heavy, rocky materials to
create terrestrial worlds.
 Gravity is responsible for:
Forming and maintaining (orbits) our Solar System
 Mantle Convection

This flow, called mantle convection, is an

important method of heat transport within the
Earth. Mantle convection is the driving
mechanism for plate tectonics, which is the
process ultimately responsible for producing
earthquakes, mountain ranges, and volcanos
on Earth.
 Earth Processes
( External or Exogenetic Earth Processes )

Erosion
- is the breakdown and transport of rock particles

Desposition
- is the laying dn of sediment

Weathering
- is the breakdown of rocks while they remain in their place
 Erosion - is the geological process in which earthen materials
are worn away and transported by natural forces such as wind or
water. Erosion is the opposite of deposition, the geological process
in which earthen materials are deposited, or built up, on a
landform.
There are six causes of erosion:

Gravity Wind

Rain Glaciers

Oceans River
GRAVITY
Bits of land
that have
been
weathered
are caused
to go from
higher to
lower ground
by gravity
 WIND

Wind erodes rock and carries away the sand created. This further erodes
other pieces of land.
 Wind erosion is a natural
process that moves soil from
one location to another by
wind power, it can cause
significant economic and
environmental damage. Wind
erosion can be caused by a
light wind that rolls soil
particles along the surface
through to a strong wind that
lifts a large volume of soil
particles into the air to create
dust storms. While wind
erosion is most common in
deserts and coastal sand
dunes and beaches, certain
land conditions will cause
wind erosion in agricultural
areas.
RAIN

Rain - splash erosion

causes weathered
material such as pebbles
or soil to become
dislodged. Heavy rainfall
then carries sediment
into streams and rivers.
- the removal of soil in thin, uniform layers (sheets) by
raindrop impact and shallow surface water flow. Sheet
erosion can sometimes be difficult to detect unless the
soil is deposited nearby or if the damage is already
severe. This erosion process removes the fine soil
particles that contain most of the important nutrients
and organic matter.

- a type of erosion that results in small yet

well-defined channels—typically smaller
than gully erosion channels. After some
time, rill erosion may fade away or, in more
serious cases, be smoothed over with
tilling.

- the washing away of soil through deep grooves

or channels across unprotected land. Gully
erosion can refer to soil being washed away
through human-made drainage lines or describe
the process of soil traveling through grooves
created by hard rains.
GLACIERS
Like flowing water,
flowing ice erodes
the land and
deposits the
material elsewhere.

Glaciers cause
erosion in two
main ways:
plucking and
abrasion.
 Abrasion is the process
in which a glacier
scrapes underlying
rock. The sediments
and rocks frozen in the
ice at the bottom and
sides of a glacier act like
sandpaper. They wear
away rock. They may
also leave scratches and
grooves that show the
direction the glacier
moved. These grooves
are called glacial
striations.

Plucking is the process by which rocks and other sediments

are picked up by a glacier. They freeze to the bottom of the
glacier and are carried away by the flowing ice.
 OCEANS

The ocean is a huge force of erosion.

Coastal erosion—the wearing away of rocks, earth, or sand on the beach—can change the shape of
entire coastlines. During the process of coastal erosion, waves pound rocks into pebbles and pebbles
into sand. Waves and currents sometimes transport sand away from beaches, moving the coastline
farther inland. Coastal erosion can have a huge impact on human settlement as well as coastal
ecosystems.
RIVERS
Rivers both erode and
build up land. Meanders
form when fast flowing
water on an outside
curve flows faster than
water on the inside. The
water on the outside has
more power to erode and
extend that riverbank
while slower water on the
inside curve deposits
material carried by the
river on the inside
riverbank.
 Deposition
- is the laying down of sediment.

Sediment can be transported as various sizes (pebbles,

sand, silt, or dissolved in water) by:

Wind

Flowing water (rivers, streams,

oceans)

Ice
- a process in which materials such as rocks and sediments settle down, giving rise to
specific formation. It occurs when the eroding agent, whether it be gravity, ice, water,
waves or wind, runs out of energy and can no longer carry its load of eroded material.
 Weathering
describes the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and
minerals on the surface of the Earth. Water, ice, acids,
salts, plants, animals, and changes in temperature are
all agents of weathering.
Causes of weathering can be biological, chemical, or physical..

Physical: water in a crack freezes and expands, causing the

crack to expand over time.
Biological: plants grow in a crack in a rock, causing the crack to
widen as the roots increase in size.

Chemical: acidic rainwater reacts with compounds in the rocks,

causing them to break down.
 Physical Weathering
Mechanical weathering, also called “Physical Weathering” and
disaggregation, causes rocks to crumble. Water, in either liquid or
solid form, is often a key agent of mechanical weathering. For
instance, liquid water can seep into cracks and crevices in rock. If
temperatures drop low enough, the water will freeze. When water
freezes, it expands.
There are common ways in which physical weathering happens:

Frost Wedging

Abrasion Sheeting
 Abrasion

Abrasion is the process by which clasts are broken through

direct collisions with other clasts. Gravity causes abrasion as
rocks tumble down a mountainside or cliff.
 Frost Wedging

Frost wedging - occurs in places that have the right temperatures to freeze water and then
melt water. This commonly happens in polar regions and mid latitude mountains where
sunlight can melt water during the day and refreeze overnight when temperatures drop.
Sheeting or Exfoliation
Sheeting, also known as
exfoliation, happens in
regions with large masses of
igneous rocks. It is caused
by the pressure release as
overburden rock is eroded
away. The process of
removing overlying rock is
called unloading. As the
pressure is released,
expansion of the rock
causes concentric layers of
cracks to form within the
igneous body. These layered
"sheets" are then broken off
by continued weathering.
 Biological Weathering
- occurs when plants break up rocks with
rocks with roots or root exudates. The process
is slow, but may strongly influence landscape
formation.
Biological Weathering
Plant roots in search of
nutrients in water grow
into fractures. As the
roots grow they wedge
the rock apart similar to
the frost wedging
process.
This is called root
wedging. During root
growth, organic acids
can form contributing to
chemical weathering.
 Chemical Weathering

With chemical weathering of rock, we see a chemical reaction

happening between the minerals found in the rock and rainwater. The
most common example of hydrolysis is feldspar, which can be found
in granite changing to clay. When it rains, water seeps down into the
ground and comes in contact with granite rocks. The feldspar crystals
within the granite react with the water and are chemically altered to
form clay minerals, which weaken the rock.
 Types of chemical weathering;
 Oxidation
The reaction of a substance with
oxygen. You are probably familiar
with oxidation because it is the
process that causes rust. So, just
like your car turns to rust through
oxidation, rocks can get rusty if
they contain iron. This is because,
when iron reacts with oxygen, it
forms iron oxide, which is not very
strong. So, when a rock gets
oxidized, it is weakened and
crumbles easily, allowing the rock to
break down. Iron oxide is kind of
brownish-red in color, and this
explains why some rocks look red.
Types of chemical weathering;
 Oxidation
Types of chemical weathering;
 Carbonation
Another type of chemical
weathering. Carbonation is
the mixing of water with
carbon dioxide to make
carbonic acid. This type of
weathering is important in
the formation of caves.
Dissolved carbon dioxide
in rainwater or in moist air
forms carbonic acid, and
this acid reacts with
minerals in rocks.