Measurement and Measuring Instruments

Module 2:Transducers

1. Classification; Selection of Transducers;

2. Resistive Transducers – Potentiometer, Strain gauge, Rosettes, Thermistors and RTD;

3. Capacitive Transducers – Measurement of Liquid level by change in variation of dielectric constant;

4. Variable Inductance Transducers – self-generating type and passive type;

5. Piezoelectric Transducers; Photoelectric Transducers; Digital Transducer

Transducers

• The transducer is a device that receives energy from one system and transmits it to another in a different form.

• It is a device capable of being actuated by an energizing input from one or more transmission media and in turn generating a

related signal to one or more transmission systems.

• It provides a usable output in response to a specified input measurement which may be physical or mechanical quantity

• The energy transmitted by these systems may be electrical mechanical or acoustic.

• Basically there are two types of transducers electrical and mechanical

Electrical Transducer

• Any electrical transducer is a fencing device by which a suitable mechanism transforms the physical, mechanical or optical

quantity to be measured directly into an electrical voltage or current proportional to the input measurand.

• An electrical transducer must have the following parameters:

1. linearity-the relationship between a physical parameter and the resulting electrical signal must be linear.

2. Sensitivity-this is defined as a electrical output per unit change in the physical parameter. high sensitivity is generally

desirable for a transducer.

Electrical Transducer

3. Dynamic range- the operating range of the transducer should be wide to permit its use under a wide range of measurement

conditions.

4. Repeatability- The output input relationship for a transducer should be predictable over a long period of time this ensures

reliability of operation.

5. physical size The transducer must have minimum weight and volume so that its present in the measurement system does not

disturb the existing conditions.

Advantages of electrical transducers

The main advantages of electrical transducers are:

6. Electrical amplification and attenuation can be easily done

7. mass inertia effects are minimized

8. effects of friction are minimized

9. the output can be indicated and recorded remotely at a distance from the sensing medium

10. the output can be modified to meet the requirements of the indicating or controlling units
Advantages of electrical transducers

6 the signal can be conditioned or mixed to obtain any combination with the outputs of similar transducers or control signals

7 the electrical or electronic system can be controlled with a very small power level

8 the electrical output can be easily used transmitted and processed for the purpose of measurement

Electrical transducers can be classified into major categories active and passive

• An active transducer generates an electrical signal directly in response to the physical parameter and does not require an

external power source for its operation. Active transducers are self generating devices which operate under energy conversion

principle and generate an equivalent output signal Typical example of active transducers are piezoelectric sensors and

photovoltaic cells.

• Passive transducers operate under energy controlling principles, making it necessary to use an external electrical source. They

depend upon the change in an electrical parameter RL and C. Typical example are strain gauges and thermistors. Electrical

transducers are used to measure non electrical quantities. for this purpose add sensing element or detector is used which

converts the physical quantity into a displacement the displacement actuates an electrical transducer which acts as a secondary

transducer and give an output that is electrical in nature.

This electrical quantity is measured by the standard method used for electrical measurement telemetric signals may be current voltage or

frequency their production is based on RL&C effects. A transducer that converts non electrical quantity into an analog electrical signal may

be considered of two parts the sensing element and the transduction element.

• The sensing or detector element is that part of the transducer which responds to a physical phenomenon or to a change in the physical

phenomenon. The response of the sensing element must be closely related to the physical phenomenon.

• The transduction element transforms the output of a sensing element to an electrical output. This act as a secondary transducer.

Transducers may be classified into different categories depending upon the principle the transduction elements employs to convert

physical phenomena into output electrical signals. The different electrical phenomena employed in the transduction elements of the

transducers are as follows

1. resistive

2. inductive

3. capacitive

4. electromagnetic

5. piezo electric
6 photo emissive

7 photo resistive

8 potentiometric

9 Thermo electric

10 frequency generating
Selecting a transducer

The transducer or sensor has to be physically compatible with its intended application the following should be considered by

selecting a transducer.

1. operating range-chosen to maintain range requirements and good resolution

2. sensitivity-chosen to allow sufficient output

3. frequency response and resonant frequency flat over the entire desired range

4. Environmental compatibility-temperature range, corrosive fluids, pressure, shocks, interaction size and mounting

restrictions.

5. minimum sensitivity-two expected stimulus other than the measurand.

6. Accuracy-repeatability and calibration errors as well as errors expected due to sensitivity to other stimuli.

7. usage and ruggedness-ratchetness both of mechanical and electrical intensities versus size and height.

8. electrical parameters-length and type of the cable required signal to noise ratio when combined with amplifiers, and

frequency response limitations.

Resistive transducers

• Resistive transducers are those in which the resistance changes due to a change in some physical phenomena.

• The change in the value of the resistance with a change in the length of the conductor can be used to measure displacement.

• Strain gages work on the principle that the resistance of a conductor for semiconductor changes when strained.

• This can be used for the measurement of displacement force and pressure.

• The associativity of the materials changes with changes in the temperature. This priority can be used for their measurement of

temperature.
Potentiometer

•The resistive potentiometer(pot) consist of their resistance element

provided with a sliding contact called a wiper.

•The motion of the sliding contact may be translatory or rotational.

•Some have a combination of both with the resistive elements in the form

of a helix as shown in the figure c. They are known as helipots.

•Translatory resistive elements as shown in the figure a are linear devices.

•Rotational resistive devices are circular and are used for the measurement

of angular displacement as shown in the figure b.

•Helical resistive elements are multi-turn rotational devices which can be

used for the measurement of either translatory or rotational motion.

•A potentiometer is a passive transducer since it requires an external power

source for its operation.

Potentiometer

Advantages of potential meter

• They are inexpensive

• Simple to operate and are very useful for applications where the requirements are not particularly severe

• They are useful for the measurement of large amplitudes of displacement

• Electrical efficiency is very high and they provide sufficient output to allow control operations.

Disadvantages

• When using a linear potentiometer a large force is required to move the sliding contacts

• The sliding contacts can wear out become misaligned and generate noise.
Strain gauges

•The strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer that uses the variation in the electrical resistance in wires to sense the strain

produced by a force on the wires.

•It is known that the stress(force per unit area) and the strain(compression per unit length in a member or a portion of any object under

pressure is directly related to the modulus of elasticity.

•Since strain can be measured more easily by using variable resistance transducers it is a common practice to measure strain instead of

stress to serve as an index of pressure. Such transducers are known as strain gauges.

•If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed its resistance changes on account of the fact that both the length and diameter of the

conductor changes

•There is a change in the value of the resistivity of the conductor when subjected to strain a property called piezo resistive effect.

•Therefore resistance strain gauges are also known as piezo resistive gauges.
Strain gauges

• Many detectors and transducers example load cells, torque meters, pressure gauges etc employ train gauges as

secondary transducers.

•When a guage is subjected to positive stress its length increases while its area of cross section decreases.

•Since the resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its area of cross

section the resistance of the gauge increases with the positive strain.

•The change in resistance value of a conductor under strain is more than for an increase in resistance due to its

dimensional changes.

•This property is called a piezo resistive effect.

•The following types of strain gauges are the most important

O wire strain gauges

O foil strain gauges

O semiconductor strain gauge

Resistance wire gauge
• Resistance wire gauges are used in two basic forms the unbounded type
and the bounded type
Unbounded resistance wire strain gauge
• An unbounded strain gauge consists of a wire stretched between two
points in an insulating medium such as air.
• The diameter of the wire used is about 25 micrometer.
• The wires are kept under tension so that there is no sag and no free
vibration.
• Unbounded strain gauges are usually connected in a bridge circuit
• The bridge is balanced with no load applied as shown in the figure.
• When an external load has applied the resistance of the strain gauge
changes causing an unbalance of the bridges are cured resulting in an
output voltage. This voltage is proportional to the strain.
• A displacement of the order of 50 micrometer can be detected with these
strain gauges.
Rossett gauge
• If the axis of the strain in a component is unknown strain gauges may be used to
determine the exact direction. The standard procedure is to place several gauges at
a point on the member surface with an odd angles between them.
• The magnitude of strain in each individual gauge is measured and used in the
geometrical determination of the strain in the member
• Figure shows a three element is strain gauge called rossett gauge in which the
angle between any two longitudinal gauge axis is 45 degrees
• The 45 degree or offset gauge is in general the most popular one there are different
shapes and sizes of this rain gauges for various purposes.
• Serving a similar but not specialized purpose are gauges with specifically modified
grid configurations such as shown in the figure AB&C
• A measurement of this type would be useful at the cross point of an X shaped
frame
To obtain good results it is desirable that a resistance wire strain gauge can have the following characteristics
1.The strain gauge should have a high value of gauge factor the resistance of this reengaged should be as high as possible
because it minimizes the effects of undesirable variations of the resistance in the measurement circuit
2.The strain gauge should have lower resistance temperature coefficient to minimize the errors on account of temperature
variation
3.The strain gauge should not have hysteresis effects in its response
4.To maintain constants of the calibration of the over the entire range of the strain gauge it should have linear characteristics
strain gauges are used for dynamic measurements and hence their frequency response should be good
5.Leads used must be of materials which have low and stable resistivity and lower resistance temperature coefficient
Thermistor
• The electrical resistance of most materials changes with the temperature.
• By selecting materials that are temperature sensitive the devices that are useful in temperature
control circuits can be made.
• Thermistor or thermally sensitive resistors are nonmetallic resistors made by sintering mixtures
of metallic oxides like manganese nickel cobalt copper and uranium.
• Thermistors of a negative temperature coefficient that is resistance decreases as temperature
rises
• Figure shows a graph of resistance versus temperature for a thermistor
• The resistance at a room temperature 25 degrees Celsius for a typical commercial unit ranges
from 100 ohm to 10 Mohm.
• They are suitable for use only up to about 800 degrees Celsius
• In some cases the resistance of the thermistors may decrease by five percent for each one-
degree Celsius rise in temperature
• This high-tech sensitivity to temperature changes makes the thermistor extremely useful for
precision temperature measurements control and compensation
• The smallest thermostats are made in the form of beads.
Thermistor
• Where greater power dissipation is required thermostats may be obtained in disc, washer or rod forms.
• Disc thermostats about 10 millimeter in diameter either self supporting or mounted on a small plate are used for temperature control.
These thermistors are made by pressing thermistors material under several tonnes of pressure inner round dye to produce flat pieces.
They are quoted with silver on two flat surfaces. The advantages of rod thermistors over other configurations is the ability to produce
high resistance units with high power handling capability
• Thermistors can be connected in series or parallel combinations for applications requiring increased power handling capability
• Higher resistance units find application measurements that employ lower lead wires or cables
• Thermistors are chemically stable and can be used in nuclear environments
• Their wide range also permits them to be used in limiting and regulation circuits.
• Advantages of thermistors are small size and low cost, faster response over narrow temperature range, good sensitivity in the NTC
region, cold junction compensation not required, contact and leader assistance problems are not encountered
• Disadvantages of thermistors are Nonlinearity in resistance so it's a temperature characteristics, Unsuitable for wide temperature change,
very low excitation current to avoid self heating, Need of shielded power lines filters etc due to higher resistance
• •
Thermistor
• Typical thermistor configurations are shown in the figure
Resistance temperature detector (RTD)
• Resistance temperature detector commonly used platinum nickel or any resistance wire whose resistance varies with the temperature and
which has high intrinsic accuracy
• They are available in many configuration and sizes
• The relationship between temperature and resistance of conductors in the temperature range near 0 degrees celsius can be calculated by
using the equation RT
• Rt=Rref(1+ ⍺Δt)
• Rt=resistance of conductor at room temperature t degree Celsius
• Rref= resistance of conductor at reference temperature
• ⍺=temp coefficient of resistance
• Δt=difference between operating and reference temp
• Almost all metals have a positive temperature coefficient PTC of resistance so that their resistance increases with increase in
temperature. Some materials such as carbon and germanium have a negative temperature coefficient NTC of resistance. A high value of
alpha is desired in a temperature sensing element so that sufficient change in resistance occurs for a relatively small change in
temperature. This change in resistance can be measured with a wheatstone's bridge which can be calibrated to indicate the temperature
that caused the resistance change rather than resistance itself. The sensing element of the RTD is selected according to the intended
applications RTDs are wire wound resistance with moderate resistance and a PTC of resistance.
Resistance temperature detector (RTD)
• Platinum is the most widely used resistance wire type because its high stability and large operating range
• However nickel and copper are also used in RTD
• Platinum RTDs provide high accuracy and stability they have the following advantages
1. Linearity over a wide operating range
2.Wide operating range
3.Higher temperature operation
4.Better stability at a high temperature
Disadvantages of RTD
1.Low sensitivity
2.It can be affected by contact resistance, shock and vibration
3.Requires no point sensing
4.Higher cost than other temperature transducers and
5.Requires three or four wires for its operation and associated instrumentation to eliminate errors due to leader assistance

RTD's are not adaptable to applications requiring fast response or small area temperature sensing. Measurement of temperature using RTD
is done after proper calibration that involves conversion of resistance value to temperature. Most RTD instruments use a wheatstone bridge
for its modified version.
Resistance temperature detector (RTD)
• The RTD and its leads are connected in one of its arms. This bridge is essentially a resistance-measuring device which converts the
resistance of the RTD into an electrical signal that is used for monitoring or controlling temperature. The basic wheatstone’s bridge with
A 2 wire RTD connected is as shown in the figure.
• ES= supply voltage
• E0= output voltage used for monitoring or controlling temperature
• R1-R2 and R3= fixed values resisters
• RT= resistance of temperature sensing element in RTD
• RL1 AND RL2= resistance of the two leads connected in the RTD element

• The value of RT add a control point or at the midpoint of the temperature range to be monitored will influence the arm resistors R1R2
and R3. And these values must be selected to limit bridge currents to avoid self heating of the rtd or bridge resistors.
• For achieving higher accuracy the bridge must be stable and insensitive to ambient temperature variations. If the value of the lead
resistance is small and also the variation of the lead resistance is small however the temperature range. Effective method to obtain a high
degree of accuracy it is desirable to use lead resistance compensation techniques or lead error elimination technique such as three wire
or four wire rtd connections two wire. Two lead RTD is lower in COST and it is normally used when the lead resistance is low in
comparison with ohms per degree celsius resistance change of the RTD for when the lead wire resistance compensation is provided in
the instrumentation.
Capacitive transducer
A linear change in capacitance with changes in the physical position of the moving element is used to provide an electrical indication of the
elements position
The capacitance is given by C=KA/d
• K= dielectric constant
• A= the total area of the the classic of surfaces
• D= distance between 2 capacitive surfaces
• C= the resultant capacitance.
From this equation it is observed that capacitance increases if the affective area of the plate is increased and if the material has a high
dielectric constant. The capacitance is reduced if the spacing between the plates is increased. Transducers make use of these three methods
of varying capacitance. With a proper calibration each type yields a higher degree of accuracy. Spray magnetic and capacitive effects may
cause errors in measurement produced which can be avoided by proper shielding
• Some capacitive dielectrics are temperature sensitive so temperature variations should be minimized for accurate measurements
• A variable plate area transducer is made-up of a fixed plate called stator and movable plate called rotor
• The rotor is mechanically coupled to the member under test.
Capacitive transducer
• As the member moves the rotor changes its position relative to the stator thereby
changing the effective area between the plates
• A transducer of this type is shown in this figure.

• Such a device is used to detect the amount of rolled in an aircraft. As the aircraft
rolls to the left the plates move to the relative position shown by the dashed lines in
figure and the capacitance decreases by an amount proportional to the degree of
roll. Similarly to the right. In this case the stator which is attached to the aircraft is
the moving element. The wait under water keeps its position fixed with a reference
to the surface of the earth but the relative position of the plates changes and this is
the factor that determines the capacitance of the unit.
• Figure shows a transducer that makes use of variation in capacitance resulting from
a change in spacing between the plates.
Capacitive transducer
• This particular transducer is designed to measure pressure
• Enclosed in an airtight container is a metallic diaphragm which you move to the left when pressure is applied to the chamber and
to the right when vacuum is applied. This diaphragm is used as one plate of the variable capacitor.
• Its distance from the stationary plate to its left as determined by the pressure applied to the unit determines the capacitance
between the two plates
• The monitor indicates the pressure equivalent of the unit's capacitance by measuring the capacitors resistance to the AC source
voltage. Changes in pressure may be easily detected by the variation of capacity between a fixed plate and another plate free to
move as the pressure changes probably the resulting variation follows the basic capacity formula,
• C=0.885 pf

• A= area of one side of one plate in centimeter square

• N= number of plates
• T= thickness of dielectric in centimetres
• K= dielectric constant
The capacitive transducer it's simple to construct and inexpensive to produce.
Variation of dielectric constant for measurement of liquid level

• Capacitive transducers using the principle of change of capacitance with change of dielectric are normally used for measurement
of liquid levels
• Figure shows a capacitive transducer used for measurement of level of a non conducting liquid
• The electrodes are two concentric cylinders and non conducting liquid acts of the dielectric
• At the lower end of the outer cylinder there are holes which allow the passage of the liquid
• In case these holes are small they provide mechanical damping of the surface variation
• The value of capacitance for this capacitor is

• h1= height of liquid;m

• h2 =type of cylinder above the liquid;m
• ƹ1= relative permittivity of liquid
• ƹ2= relative permittivity of vapor above liquid
• r2= inside radius of outer cylinder;m
• r1= outside radius of inner cylinder;m
• ƹ0= permittivity of free space
Inductive transducer
Inductive transducers may be of self generating or passive type. The self generating type utilizes the basic electrical generator
principle that is motion between a conductor and magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor(generator action). This relative
motion between the field and the conductor is supplied by changes in the measured. An inductive electromechanical transducer is a
device that converts physical motion or position change into a change in inductance.. Transducers of the variable inductance type
work upon one of the following principle:
• Variation of self inductance
• Variation of mutual inductance
Inductive transducers are mainly used for their measurement of displacement. The displacement to be measured is arranged to cause
variation in any of the three variables
• Number of turns
• Geometric configuration
• Permeability of the magnetic material
let us consider the case of a general inductive transducer. the inductive transducer has N turns and a reluctance R. when a current I
he's passed through it the flux is,
ɸ=
Inductive transducer
ɸ=
Therefore, =x - x
=x
• EMF induced in the coil is given by,
• E=N x
• Therefore, e=N x x = x
• Also the self inductance is iven by
• L==

• Therefore the output from an inductive transducer can be n the form of either a change in voltage or change in inductance.
Piezo electric Transducer
•The crystalline material such as quartz, rochelle salt and barium titanate produce an EMF when they are placed under stress.
•This property is used in piezoelectric transducers where a crystal is placed between a solid base and the force summing member as
shown in the figure.
•

An externally applied force entering the transducer through its pressure port applies pressure to the top of the crystal. This produces
an EMF across the crystal proportional to the magnitude of the applied pressure. Since transducer has a very good HF response its
principal use is in HF accelerometers. In this application its output voltage is typically of the order of 1-30 mv per gm of
acceleration. This device needs no external power source and is therefore self generating.
•The disadvantage is that it cannot measure static conditions.
•The output voltage is also affected by temperature variation of the crystal
Piezo electric Transducer
•The basic upper expression for output to voltage E is given by
•E=Q/cp
•Where Q is the generator charge and cp is the shunt capacitances
•Differential for is a dynamic responding sensor and definite readily measure static conditions
•For a piezoelectric element under pressure part of the energy is converted to an electric potential that appears on opposite faces of
the element analogous to a charge on the plates of a capacitor
•The rest of the applied energy is converted to mechanical energy analog of to convert to spring
•When the pressure is removed it your returns to original shape and loses its electric charge for this relationship the following
formulas have been derived for the coupling coefficient K.

•K=

K=
Photoelectric transducer
•Photoelectric devices can be categorized as photoemissive, photoconductive or photovoltaic.
•In photoemissive devices radiation falling on a cathode causes electrons to be emitted from the cathode surface.
•In photoconductive devices the resistance of a material is changed when it is illuminated.
•Photovoltaic cells generate an output voltage proportional to the radiation intensity.
•The incident radiation may be infrared ultraviolet gamma rays x-rays or visible light.
Photomultiplier tube
•The photomultiplier tube consists of an evacuated glass envelope containing a photocathode, anna anode and several additional
electrodes termed dynodes each at a higher voltage than the previous dynode.
•Figure illustrates the principle of photomultiplier.
•Electrons emitted by the cathode are attracted to the first dynode here are phenomenon known as secondary emission takes place.
Photoelectric transducer

•When electrons moving at a high velocity strike an appropriate

material the material emits a greater number of electrons than it
was struck with.
•In this device the high velocity is achieved by the use of a high
voltage between the anode and the cathode
•The electrons emitted by the faster dynode are then attracted to
the second diode for the same action takes place again
•Each diner is at higher voltage in order to achieve the requisite
electron velocity each time
•And secondary emission and the resulting electron
multiplication occurs at each step with an overall increase in
electron flow that may be very great.

Photoconductive cells or photocells

•The device is discussed above achieve an electrical output by

photoemission
•Another photoelectric effect that is very useful is the
photoconductive effect
•In this effect electrical resistance of the material varies with
the amount of incident light as shown in figure B
•They're going instruction is shown in figure a
The photoconductive material typically cadium sulphide, cadium selenide or cadium sulfur
selenide is deposited in a sick fact pattern separating 2 metal quoted areas acting as
electrodes all on an insulating base such as ceramic
•The assembly is enclosed in a metal case with a glass window over the photoconductive
material
•Photocells of these types are made in a wide range of sizes from 1 by 8 inch in diameter to
over one inch
•The small faces are suitable where space is critical as in punched card reading equipment
•A typical control circuit utilizing a photoconductor cell is shown in figure.
•The corentin meter is used to make adjustments to compensate for manufacturing
tolerances in photocells sensitivity and relay operating sensitivity
•When the photocell has an appropriate light shining on it its resistance is low and the
current through the relays consequently high enough to operate the relay
•When the light is interrupted the resistance rises causing the relay current to decrease
enough to deenergize the relay
Photovoltaic cell
The photovoltaics or solar cell produces an electric current when connected to their load
•Both silicon and selenium types are known for this purpose
•Multiple unit to silicon photovoltaic devices may be used for sensing light in applications such as reading punchcards in the data
processing industry
•Gold doped germanium cells with a controlled spectral response characteristics act as photovoltaic devices in the infrared region of
the spectrum and may be used as infrared detectors
•The silicon solar cell converts the radiant energy of the sun into electrical power
•The solar cell consists of a thin slice of single crystal P type silicon up to 2 centimeter square into which a very thin layer of N type
material is diffused
Digital transducer
•By the use of a digital god it is possible to identify the position of a movable test base in terms of a binary number
•The positioning is converted into a train of pulses
•This is achieved by a digital transducer and it is also termed as encoder.
•Since binary systems uses only two states zero or one it can be easily represented by two different types of systems optical or
electrical
•Data transducers using optical methods are called optical encoders while those using electrical methods are called resistive
electrical encoders
optical encoders
• Sector may be designed as shown in the figure with a pattern of opaque and translucent areas.
• A photo sensor and a light source is placed on the two sides of the sector
• The displacement is applied to the sector and therefore changes the amount of light falling onto the photoelectric sensor
• The pattern of the illuminated sensor then carries the information to the location of this sector
• Figure shows the four possible pattern on sector of opaque and translucent areas
• The number of levels in the encoder determines the accuracy with which the device operates
optical encoders
• Advantages
• They give a true digital readout
• No mechanical contact is involved and therefore problems appear and here and alignment are not present
• Disadvantages light sources burnout
• Resistive digital encoders
• Another method in which a pattern may be used is the resistive electrical encoder
• The shaded areas are made-up of conducting material and the unshaded areas of insulating material
• Sliding contacts are used for making the contact
• Subcutis sliding contacts which come in contact with the conducting areas are completed while those which will make contact
with insulated areas are not completed
• Camcorder gives a digital readout which is an indication of the position of the device and hence determines the displacement
Advantages
• It is relatively inexpensive
• It can be made to any degree of accuracy desired provided the sector is made large enough to accumulate the required number of
rows for binary numbers
Disadvantages
• We aren't your optic contacts causes error
• There is often an ambiguity of 1 digit in LSB