NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Testing divided in two categories –

destructive, non- destructive. Non-
Destructive Testing (NDT) is capable of
detecting the defects in the material like
internal flaws, porosity, sand inclusions,
slag inclusions, cracks and inclusion of
foreign materials, etc.

TYPES OF TESTING
DESTRUCTIVE NON-DESTRUCTIVE
Chemical Analysis Visual Examination
Physical/Mechanical Engg. Stethoscope
(Tensile, Bending, Dye-penetration
Torsion, Hardness, Magnetic particles
Izod- impact, etc) Ultrasonic
Radiographic
 NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

VISUAL EXAMINATION
 

Most important method of NDT performed

visually without involving any equipment
except occasional use of magnifying glass.
This method can reveal surface defects like
cracks, cavities, misruns, and roughness.
 

ENGINEERING STETHOSCOPE
 

Test can be performed engineer’s

stethoscope and a hammer. Inner defects
and very fine surface defects detected by this
method with the help of the quality of the
sound. When struck with a hammer a good
ringing sound emits from the metal
containing no defect. In case the object have
cracks, lack of fusion, slag inclusion, etc. flat
note comes out.
 
DYE-PENETRATION OR LIQUID PENETRATION
EXAMINATION
 
Method for finding surface defects, discontinuities and
sub-surface defects with surface opening in-ferrous and
non-ferrous materials with the application of a colour
dye/liquid on the surface of the object under test. DP
test kit containers of chemicals viz. cleaner, penetrant
and developer.
 
Before commencement of examination the surface of the
object is cleaned/degreased with the help of cleaner.
The liquid penetrant is sprayed/applied on the surface
and kept for some time allowing the soaking/seepage of
the penetrant into the cracks, porosities, etc. by the
capillary action. The excess penetrant is then removed
with the help of water or application of a solvent. This
developer acts as a blotter and draws out a portion of the
penetrant from the defects/cracks then can easily detect
any cracks of the surface.
 
Inspection is carried out by viewing the part for colour
contrast between the penetrant drawn out and the
background surface. In case of penetrant that contain a
visible dye, viewing can be done under white light.
MAGNETIC CRACK DETECTION OR MAGNETIC
PARTICLE OR MAGNASPRAY OR MAGNAFLEX
INSPECTION
 
Method for detecting flaws, cracks, laps, bursts, tears,
splits, seams, inclusions, segregations, laminations,
shrinks, cold shuts, porosity, lack of fusion, etc. in
magnetizable materials, by which a visible indication
of defects is produced on the surface of the part being
inspected. Method locate cracks and surface defects
in a wide range of products, irrespective of shape, size,
composition and state of heat treatment excluding
non-magnetic material.

Factors affecting MPT type of current (AC/DC),

method of magnetizing, direction of current flow and
amount of current. AC can detect surface defects only
due to skin effects.
 
Procedure of MPT –
Magnetization of the object.
Application of finely divided magnetic particles
(either dry or suspended in a liquid) over the surface
of the magnetized part.
Demagnetization of the object after the completion of
test.  
Magnetized ring, magnetized bar,
magnetic prods or electric coils are used
for creation of magnetic flux in the
ferromagnetic object under test.
Magnetic flux should be created in such a
manner that the lines of force are
perpendicular to the orientation of the
crack.
 
Magnetic iron oxide powder (fine) are
sprayed/applied on the object. Where
there is a crack or discontinuity the iron
powder will accumulate in the form of a
heap. The magnitude of the crack
depends upon the volume of the heap.
This acts like a small horseshoe magnet
to attract and hold some of the magnetic
powder particles forming a visible
indication of location and extent of the
crack.
ULTRASONIC TESTING

A sound energy can be classified into two

types, the audible and the inaudible. The
waves are audible when their frequencies
lower than 20,000 c/s, above that
frequency inaudible. Inaudible sound
waves (having frequencies over 20,000
c/s) ultrasonic or supersonic waves.
 
Ultrasonic waves are produced by ‘piezo-
electric effect’. Crystals like natural
quartzes (or lithium sulphate or barium
titanate) are placed in an electric field, a
mechanical deformation is produced.
When the current is alternating, the
deformations or oscillation produced in
the crystal will also be of the same
frequency as the current.
 
 
 ULTRASONIC TESTING

Tests can be applied in three classes in

metal inspection.
 
1. Locating internal or surface
discontinuities or non-homogeneous
areas in materials.
2. Determining differences in structure and
physical properties.
3. Measuring the thickness of metal from
one side.
 
The ultrasonic flaw detector makes use
of phenomenon of back reflection of the
waves by surfaces. When the ultrasonic
waves are made to pass through an
object, they are immediately reflected by
the surface at which they enter.
 If the solid has a crack or cavity inside, the
two surfaces of the cavity also hinder the
wave flow and reflect them.
 
One crystal probe is sufficient to transmit
into and receive from the solid, the
ultrasonic waves. The time of application
of the current and its frequency are suitably
controlled to send a predetermined number
of ultrasonic waves into the object under
test. When applied for a millionth of a
second, five such ultrasonic waves are sent
into the surface of the object. When the
current is put off, the crystal ceases to
produce and transmit ultrasonic waves and
starts to function as a receiver. The
reflected ultrasonic waves generate
vibrations in the crystal, thus producing
electric impulses. These are fed into a
cathode ray oscilloscope and the result can
be interpreted to detect the internal flaws.
 If there is no internal flaw in the object
under test the oscilloscope will show two
sharp peaks, one at the extreme left for top
surface and other at the extreme right for
bottom surface. Any intermediate peak will
indicate the flaw in the material. The depth
of the flaw also can be measured through
the oscillosgraph.
 
Precaution must be taken to eliminate the
air from the interface of the probe and the
object under test.
 
Ultrasonic test can be successfully used for
detection of flaws in hooks, measuring the
thickness of derrick booms, inspection of
weldments, etc.
 
 RADIOGRAPHY
 
Properties of x-rays and y-rays

• they are invisible

• they have very short wavelengths and
hence can penetrate through the lattices
of metal which normal light can not.
• They are differentially absorbed by
matter.
• They travel in straight lines
• They effect photographic papers and
emulsions
• They ionize the gases while passing
through them
 RATIOGRAPHY (Contd,)
 
Properties of x-rays and y-rays

• Electric or magnetic fields have no effect

on them
• They travel with a velocity of 8 x 10
cm/sec. (186,000 miles/sec.)
• They are capable of liberating
photoelectrons
• They can cause fluorescence in certain
substances.
 RATIOGRAPHY
  
x-rays and y-rays are forms of
electromagnetic radiation. They are usually
produced by allowing stream of high energy
electrons to impinge on the metallic surface,
thus producing photons by deceleration of
electrons.
 
x-rays, when focused on a metallic object,
can penetrate the matter and are
differentially absorbed.
 
The most important aspect of radiography is
the interpretation of the radiographic plages.
The radiograph gives a negative picture of
the object.
 
 COMMON DEFECTS IN CASTINGS

Defect Appearance

Gas cavities, blow Well-defined circular

holes dark areas
Shrinkage, porosity Fibrous irregular dark
region at the center
Cracks Dark areas of varying
width
Sand inclusions Dark or grey sports of
uneven texture with no
clear Boundaries
Inclusions in steel Dark areas of definite
outline

As regarding the testing of welds, which is an

important application of radiography, the common
defects that arise are porosity, slag inclusions,
cracks and incomplete fusion.