Optical Fiber Communications

Unit.5. FIBER COUPLERS AND CONNECTORS

By
Deepika K C
Assistant Professor
ECE,MCE.
Syllabus
Unit – 5. FIBER COUPLERS AND CONNECTORS:

1.Introduction,

2.Fiber alignment and joint loss,

3.Single mode fiber joints,

4.Fiber splices,

5.Fiber connectors and fiber couplers.

6. [Self learning: Fiber splices]

 1.Introduction
The two major categories of fiber joint currently in both use and
development. These are as follows:
1. Fiber splices. These are semi permanent or permanent joints which find
major use in most optical fiber telecommunication systems (analogous to
electrical soldered joints).
2. Demountable fiber connectors or simple connectors.
These are removable joints which allow easy, fast, manual coupling and
uncoupling of fibers (analogous to electrical plugs and sockets).

• These fiber–fiber joints are designed ideally to couple all the light
propagating in one fiber into the adjoining fiber.
• By contrast fiber couplers are branching devices that split all the light from
a main fiber into two or more fibers or, alternatively,
• Couple a proportion of the light propagating in the main fiber into a
branch fiber.
 2.Fiber alignment and joint loss
A major consideration with all types of fiber–fiber connection is the optical loss
encountered at the interface.
When the two jointed fiber ends are smooth and perpendicular to the fiber
axes, and the two fiber axes are perfectly aligned, a small proportion of the light
may be reflected back into the transmitting fiber causing attenuation at the
joint.
This phenomenon, known as Fresnel reflection, is associated with the step
changes in refractive index at the jointed interface (i.e. glass–air–glass).
The magnitude of this partial reflection of the light transmitted through the
interface may be estimated using the classical Fresnel formula for light of
normal incidence and is given by

The loss in decibels due to Fresnel reflection at a single interface is given by:

where r is the fraction of the light reflected at a single interface, n 1 is the refractive
index of the fiber core and n is the refractive index of the medium between the two
jointed fibers (i.e. for air n = 1).
Fiber alignment and joint loss (contd….)
Mechanical Misalignment
Mechanical Misalignment (contd….)
Mechanical Misalignment (contd….)

Figure . The three possible types of misalignment which may occur when
jointing compatible optical fibers [Ref. 9]: (a) longitudinal misalignment; (b)
lateral misalignment; (c) angular misalignment
Intrinsic joint losses.

The losses caused by the three possible types of misalignment

with those of Fresnel reflection are usually referred to as intrinsic
joint losses.
• (a) Different core and/or cladding diameters;
• (b) different numerical apertures and/or relative refractive
index differences;
• (c) Different refractive index profiles;
• (d) Fiber faults (core ellipticity, core concentricity, etc.).
 Multimode fiber joints

Figure . Some intrinsic coupling losses at fiber joints: (a) core diameter mismatch;
(b) numerical aperture mismatch; (c) refractive index profile difference
3.Single-mode fiber joints
• In the absence of angular misalignment calculated that the loss Tl due to
lateral offset y was given by:

where ω is the normalized spot size of the fundamental mode.

where ω is the spot size in μm, a is the fiber core radius and V is the normalized
frequency for the fiber. Alternatively, the insertion loss Ta caused by an angular
misalignment θ (in radians) at a joint in a single-mode fiber may be given by:

where n1 is the fiber core refractive index and NA is the numerical aperture of the
fiber.
4.Fiber Splices
A permanent or semi-permanent connection between two
individual optical fibers is known as fiber splice.

A permanent joint formed between two individual optical fibers in the

field or factory is known as a fiber splice.

Fiber splicing is frequently used to establish long-haul optical fiber

links where smaller fiber lengths need to be joined, and there is
no requirement for repeated connection and disconnection.

Splices may be divided into two broad categories depending upon the
splicing technique utilized.
Types of Splicing
There are two main types of splicing
i) Fusion splicing.
ii) Mechanical splicing / V groove
 Fusion splices

• The fusion splicing of single fibers involves the heating of the two
prepared fiber ends to their fusing point with the application of
sufficient axial pressure between the two optical fibers.
• It is therefore essential that the stripped (of cabling and buffer
coating) fiber ends.
• are adequately positioned and aligned in order to achieve good
continuity of the transmission medium at the junction point.

• Hence the fibers are usually positioned and clamped

with the aid of an inspection microscope.
Electric arc fusion splicing

Figure .Electric arc fusion splicing: (a) an example of fusion splicing apparatus [Refs 34, 38];
(b) schematic illustration of the prefusion method for accurately splicing optical fibers.
 Optical Fiber Splicing: Multiple Splices
• Multiple simultaneous fusion splicing of an array of fibers in a ribbon cable
can be done.

• 12-fiber ribbon was prepared by scoring and breaking prior to pressing the
fiber ends onto a contact plate.

• An electric are fusing device was then employed to provide simultaneous

fusion.

• Such a device is now commercially available to allow the splicing of 12

fibers simultaneously in a time of around 40 seconds.

• Splice losses using this device with multimode graded index fiber range
from an average of 0.04 dB to a maximum of 0.12 dB, whereas for single-
mode fiber the average loss is 0.04 dB with a 0.4 dB maximum.

• Splice losses using this device with multimode graded index fiber range
from an average of 0.04 dB to a maximum of 0.12 dB, whereas for single-
mode fiber the average loss is 0.04 dB with a 0.4 dB maximum.
 Multiple Splices(contd…)

In this technique a 12-fiber splice is prepared by stripping the ribbon and coating
material from the fibers.
Then the 12 fibers are laid into the trapezoidal* grooves of a silicon chip using a
comb structure, as shown in Figure 5.14.
The top silicon chip is then positioned prior to applying epoxy to the chip–ribbon
interface. Finally, after curing, the front end face is ground and polished.
V-groove splices

Figure. V-groove splices

 Multiple-fiber splicing using V-groove flat chip, moulded
from glass filled polymer resin- Mechanical Splicing

V-groove splices

• In this technique simultaneous end preparation of all 24 fibers was achieved using a
ribbon grinding and polishing procedure.
• The ribbons were then laid in guides and all 12 fibers were positioned in grooves in
the glass-filled plastic substrate.
• A vacuum technique was used to hold the fibers in position while the cover plate was
applied, and spring clips were used to hold the assembly together.
• Index-matching gel was applied through a hole in the cover plate giving average splice
losses of 0.18 dB with multimode fiber.
 5.Fiber connectors:

Demountable fiber connectors are more difficult to achieve than optical fiber
splices.
This is because they must maintain similar tolerance requirements to
splices in order to couple light between fibers efficiently, but they must
accomplish it in a removable fashion.
The connector design must allow for repeated connection and disconnection
without problems of fiber alignment, which may lead to degradation in the
performance of the transmission line at the joint.
Hence to operate satisfactorily, the demountable connector must provide
reproducible accurate alignment of the optical fibers.
Optical fiber connectors may be considered in three major areas,
which are:
(a) The fiber termination, which protects and locates the fiber ends.
(b) The fiber end alignment to provide optimum optical coupling.
(c) The outer shell, which maintains the connection and the fiber alignment,
protects the fiber ends from the environment and provides adequate
strength at the joint.
Fiber connectors(contd….)
Principles of Good Connector Design
1. Low coupling loss.

2. Inter-changeability – No variation is loss whenever a connector is

applied to a fiber.

3. Ease of assembly.

4. Low environmental sensitivity.

5. Low cost – The connector should be in expensive also the tooling

required for fitting.

6. Reliable operation.

7. Ease of connection.

8. Repeatability – Connection and reconnection many times without an

increase in loss.
 Fiber connectors(contd….)

Fiber connectors may be separated into two broad categories:

1.Butt-jointed connectors
2.Expanded beam connectors.

Butt-jointed connectors rely upon alignment of the two prepared fiber

ends in close proximity (butted) to each other so that the fiber core axes
coincide.
Expanded beam connectors utilize interposed optics at the joint (i.e.
lenses) in order to expand the beam from the transmitting fiber end
before reducing it again to a size compatible with the receiving fiber
end.
Butt-jointed connectors are the most widely used connector type
and a substantial number have been reported.
We review some of the more common butt jointed connector
designs which have been developed for use with both multimode
and single-mode fibers.
 Cylindrical ferrule connectors:

Figure. Structure of a basic ferrule connector

The two fibers to be connected are permanently bonded (with epoxy resin) in metal
plugs known as ferrules which have an accurately drilled central hole in their end
faces where the stripped (of buffer coating) fiber is located. Within the connector the
two ferrules are placed in an alignment sleeve which, using accurately machined
components, allows the fiber ends to be butt jointed.
It is essential with this type of connector that the fiber end faces are smooth and
square
(i.e. perpendicular to the fiber axis). This may be achieved with varying success by:
(a) Cleaving the fiber before insertion into the ferrule;
(b) inserting and bonding before cleaving the fiber close to the ferrule end face;
(c) using either (a) or (b) and polishing the fiber end face until it is flush with the end
of the ferrule.
 Cylindrical ferrule connectors(contd…)

Figure: Structure of a watch jewel

connector ferrule

In this case the fiber is centered with respect to the ferrule through the
watch jewel hole.
The use of the watch jewel allows the close diameter and tolerance
requirements of the ferrule end face hole to be obtained more easily
than simply through drilling of the metallic ferrule end face alone.
Typical concentricity errors between the fiber core and the outside
diameter of the jeweled ferrule are in the range 2 to 6 μm giving insertion
losses in the range 1 to 2 dB with multimode step index fibers.
 Ceramic Capillary Ferrule:

Figure 5.17 ST series multimode fiber

connector using ceramic capillary ferrules

In addition, the straight ceramic ferrule may be observed in Figure 5.17 which
contrasts with the stepped ferrule (i.e. a ferrule with a single step which
reduces the diameter midway along its length) provided in the SMA connector
design.
The average loss obtained using this connector with multimode graded index
fiber (i.e. core/cladding: 62.5/125 μm) was 0.22 dB with less than 0.1 dB
change in loss after 1000 reconnections
 Duplex and multiple-fiber connectors:

Media interface plug for a duplex

connector

• Multiple-fiber connection is obviously advantageous when

interconnecting a large number of fibers.
• Both cylindrical and biconical ferrule connectors can be
assembled in housings to form multiple-fiber configurations
 Fiber ribbon connector using V-groove silicon chips:

Figure 5.19 Multiple-fiber connectors: (a) fiber ribbon connector using V-

groove silicon chips
Fiber ribbon connector using V-groove
silicon chips(contd….)
In this connector, ribbon fibers were mounted and
bonded into the V-grooves in order to form a plug
together with precision metal guiding rods and coil
springs.
The fiber connections were then accomplished by butt
jointing the two pairs of guiding rods in the slitted
sleeves located in the adaptor, also illustrated in.

This multiple-fiber connector exhibited average

insertion losses of 0.8 dB which were reduced to 0.4
dB by the use of index-matching fluid.
 Single-mode 10-fiber connector:

Figure 5.19 single-mode 10-

fiber connector

• It comprised two molded ferrules with 10-fiber ribbon cables which are accurately
aligned by guide pins, then held stable with a rectangular guide sleeve and a cramp
spring.
• This compact multifiber connector which has dimensions of only 6 × 4 mm
exhibited an average connection loss of 0.43 dB when used with singlemode fibers
having a spot size (ω0) of 5 μm.
 Fiber connector design types:
• Straight tip (ST)
• Subminiature assembly (SMA)
• Fiber connector (FC)
• Miniature unit (MU)
• Subscriber connector (SC)
• D4 connector
Bend Connectors:

90 degree bend connector

Bend Connectors(contd….)

90 degree bend multilayer connector

 6.Fiber couplers
An optical fiber coupler is a device that distributes light from a main fiber into one
or more branch fibers.
Optical fiber couplers are often passive devices in which the power transfer takes
place either:
(a) through the fiber core cross-section by butt jointing the fibers or by using some
form of imaging optics between the fibers (core interaction type);
Or
(b) through the fiber surface and normal to its axis by converting the guided core
modes to both cladding and refracted modes which then enable the power-sharing
mechanism (surface interaction type).

Figure. Classification of optical fiber couplers: (a) core interaction type; (b) surface interaction
type
Multiport optical fiber couplers

Figure.Optical fiber
coupler types and
functions:
(a) three-port couplers;
(b) four-port coupler;
(c) star coupler;
(d) wavelength division
multiplexing and
demultiplexing couplers
Multiport optical fiber couplers(contd….)
Multiport optical fiber couplers can also be subdivided into the following three main
groups
1. Three- and four-port couplers, which are used for signal splitting, distribution
and combining.

2. Star couplers, which are generally used for distributing a single input signal to
multiple outputs.

3.Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) devices, which are a specialized form

of coupler designed to permit a number of different peak wavelength optical
signals to be transmitted in parallel on a single fiber.
In this context WDM couplers either combine the different wavelength optical
signal onto the fiber (i.e. multiplex) or separate the different wavelength optical
signals outputfrom the fiber (i.e. demultiplex).
Multiport optical fiber couplers(contd….)

Ideal fiber couplers should distribute light among the branch fibers with
no scattering loss or the generation of noise, and they should function
with complete insensitivity to factors including the distribution of light
between the fiber modes, as well as the state of polarization of the light.

In particular, the finite scattering loss at the coupler limits

the number of terminals that can be connected, or
alternatively the span of the network,
whereas the generation of noise and modal effects can cause problems
in the specification of the network performance.
 Three- and four-port couplers
1.The lateral offset method, illustrated in
Figure 5.28(a), relies on the overlapping
of the fiber end faces.
Light from the input fiber is coupled to the
output fibers according to the degree of
overlap.
Hence the input power can be distributed in
a well defined proportion by appropriate
control of the amount of lateral offset
between the fibers.
This technique, which can provide a
bidirectional coupling capability, is well
Figure. Fabrication techniques for three-port fiber couplers: (a)
the lateral offset method; (b) the semitransparent mirror method suited for use with multimode step index
fibers.
2.The semitransparent mirror method provides an ingenious way to accomplish
such a fiber coupler, as shown in Figure 5.28(b).
A partially reflecting surface can be applied directly to the fiber end face cut at
an angle of 45° to form a thin-film beam splitter.
The input power may be split in any desired ratio between the reflected and
transmitted beams
depending upon the properties of the intervening mirror, and typical excess
losses for the device lie in the range 1 to 2 dB.
Three- and four-port couplers(contd….)
1.Figure 5.29(a) shows the structure
of a parallel surface type of GRIN-rod
lens three port coupler which
comprises two quarter pitch lenses
with a semitransparent mirror in
between.
Light rays from the input fiber F1
collimate in the first lens before they
are incident on the mirror.
A portion of the incident beam is
reflected back and is coupled to fiber
F2, while the transmitted light is
focused in the second lens and then
Figure 5.29 GRIN-rod lens micro-optic fiber couplers: (a) parallel
coupled to fiber F3.
surface type; (b) slant surface type

2.The slant surface version of the similar coupler is shown in Figure 5.29(b).
The parallel surface type, however, is the most attractive due to its ease of
fabrication, compactness, simplicity and relatively low insertion loss.

Finally, the substitution of the mirror by an interference filter offers application of

these devices to WDM
Multiport optical fiber couplers(contd….)

Figure. Structure and principle of

operation for the fiber fused biconical
taper coupler

The most common method for manufacturing couplers is the fused biconical
taper (FBT) technique, the basic structure and principle of operation of which
are illustrated in Figure 5.30.
In this method the fibers are generally twisted together and then spot fused
under tension such that the fused section is elongated to form a biconical taper
structure.
A three-port coupler is formed by removing one of the input fibers.
Optical power launched into the input fiber propagates in the form of guided
core modes.
The higher order modes, however, leave the fiber core because of its reduced
size in the tapered-down region and are therefore guided as cladding modes.
These modes transfer back to guided core modes in the tapered-up region of
the output fiber with an approximately even distribution between the two fibers.
Multiport optical fiber couplers(contd….)
Multiport optical fiber couplers(contd….)
Star couplers In the mixer-rod method
illustrated in Figure 5.33 a
thin platelet of glass is
employed, which effectively
mixes the light from one fiber,
dividing it among the
outgoing fibers.

This method can be used to

produce a transmissive star
coupler or a reflective star
coupler

The splitting loss is related to the number of output ports N following:

For a single input port and multiple output ports where j = 1, N, then the
excess loss is given by:
Star couplers(contd….)

The fibers which constitute the star coupler are bundled, twisted, heated and
pulled, to form the device illustrated in Figure. 5.34.
With multimode fiber this method relies upon the coupling of higher order modes
between the different fibers. It is therefore highly mode dependent, which results
in a relatively wide port-to-port output variation in comparison with star couplers
based on the mixer-rod technique.
References
1. "Optical Fiber Communication”, Gerd Keiser, 4th Ed., MGH, 2008.

2. "Optical Fiber Communications", John M. Senior, Pearson Education. 3rd

Impresson, 2007.

3.”MEMS and microsystems design and manufacture “,tai-ran hsu