KINGS, FARMERS AND TOWNS

EARLY STATES AND ECONOMIES

 CHANGES FOLLOWING THE END OF
HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
+ Rigveda was composed by people living along the Indus and its tributaries. 
+ Agricultural settlements emerged in many parts of the subcontinent, including north India, the Deccan
Plateau, and parts of Karnataka. 
+ Besides, there is evidence of pastoral populations in the Deccan and further south. 
+ New modes of disposal of the dead, including the making of elaborate stone structures known as megaliths,
emerged in central and south India from the first millennium BCE. 
+ In many cases, the dead were buried with a rich range of iron tools and weapons.
+ the emergence of early states, empires and kingdoms.  
+ New towns appeared.
SOURCES

Inscriptions texts

visual
coins and 
material. 
PRINSEP AND
PIYADASSI
+ Developments in Indian epigraphy took place in the 1830s. 
+ James Prinsep, an officer in the mint of the East India
Company, deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi, two scripts
used in the earliest inscriptions and coins. 
+ He found that most of these mentioned a king referred to as
Piyadassi – meaning “pleasant to behold”
+ there were a few inscriptions which also referred to the
king as Asoka, one of the most famous rulers known from
Buddhist texts.
 The sixth century BCE is often regarded as a major
turning point in early Indian history.

It is an era associated with early states, cities, 

6TH CENTURY the growing use of iron, 

BCE: A MAJOR
TURNING POINT the development of coinage, etc. 

It also witnessed the growth of diverse systems of

thought, including Buddhism and Jainism. 
 THE SIXTEEN
MAHAJANAPADAS
+ Early Buddhist and Jaina texts mention sixteen states
known as mahajanapadas. 
+ Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara and
Avanti  were amongst the most
important mahajanapadas.
+ ruled by kings, some, known as ganas or sanghas, were
oligarchies, where power was shared by a number of
men, often collectively called rajas. 
+ Each mahajanapada had a capital city, which was often
fortified. 
+ According to Dharmasutras, Rulers were advised to
collect taxes and tribute from cultivators, traders and
artisans.
+ Attacked other states for wealth
+ Maintained army also
First amongst the sixteen: Magadha
+ Magadha: emerged as a powerful mahajanapada between the 6th and the 4th centuries
BCE.
+ Magadha was a region where agriculture was especially productive.
+ Iron mines were accessible and provided resources for tools and weapons.
+ Elephants, an important component of the army, were found in forests in the region.
+ The Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient communication. 
+ Early Buddhist and Jaina writers who wrote about Magadha attributed its power to the
policies of individuals: ruthlessly ambitious kings of whom Bimbisara, Ajatasattu and
Mahapadma Nanda are the best known, and their ministers, who helped implement their
policies.
AN EARLY EMPIRE
+ The growth of Magadha culminated in the emergence of the Mauryan
Empire.
+ Chandragupta Maurya founded the empire in c. 321 BCE).
+ He  extended control as far northwest as Afghanistan and Baluchistan.
+ His grandson Asoka, arguably the most famous ruler of early India,
conquered Kalinga (present-day coastal Orissa).
Finding out about
the Mauryas
+ Archaeological Finds such as sculpture
+ The account of Megasthenes (a Greek ambassador to the
court of Chandragupta Maurya), which survives in
fragments. 
+ The Arthashastra composed by Kautilya or Chanakya,
traditionally believed to be the minister of
Chandragupta. 
+ The Mauryas are mentioned in later Buddhist, Jaina and
Puranic literature, as well as in Sanskrit literary works. 
+ The inscriptions of Asoka (c. 272/268-231 BCE) on
rocks and pillars are often regarded as amongst the most
valuable sources.
ASHOKAN
INSCRIPTIONS

Asoka was the first ruler who inscribed his messages to his
subjects and officials on stone surfaces – natural rocks as
well as polished pillars.

He used the inscriptions to proclaim what he understood to be

dhamma.

This included respect towards elders, generosity towards

Brahmanas and those who renounced worldly life, treating
slaves and servants kindly, and respect for religions and
traditions other than one’s own. This Photo by Unknown author is licensed under CC BY-SA.
 Five major provincial centres: the capital Pataliputra and the
provincial centres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri,
all mentioned in Asokan inscriptions.

ADMINISTERING No uniform control: strong control over the areas around

provincial centres.
THE EMPIRE
Choice of provincial centres: on the basis of their
importance: h Taxila and Ujjayini being situated on important
long-distance trade routes, while Suvarnagiri (literally, the
golden mountain) was possibly important for tapping the gold
mines of Karnataka.
 Communication along both land and riverine
routes was vital for the existence of the
empire. 

Journeys from the centre to the provinces

could have taken weeks if not months.
ADMINISTERING
THE EMOIRE Proper arrangements were made for the
people who were on move.

Army played an important role in this.

 + Megasthenes mentions a committee with six
subcommittees for coordinating military activity.
+ one looked after the navy,
+ the second managed transport and provisions,
+ the third was responsible for foot-soldiers,
+ the fourth for horses,
ARMY + the fifth for chariots and the sixth for elephants.

ADMINISTRATION  + The activities of the second subcommittee were

rather varied: arranging for bullock carts to carry
equipment, procuring food for soldiers and
fodder for animals, and recruiting servants and
artisans to look after the soldiers.
 Asoka also tried to hold his
empire together by propagating
dhamma.

DHAMMA This, according to him, would

ensure the well-being of people
MAHAMATTAS in this world and the next.

Special officers, known as the

dhamma mahamatta, were
appointed to spread the message
of dhamma.
HOW IMPORTANT WAS THE EMPIRE?
+ Nineteenth and early twentieth century Indian historians found the possibility that
there was an empire in early India both challenging and exciting.
+ Some of the archaeological finds associated with the Mauryas, including stone
sculpture, were considered to be examples of the spectacular art typical of empires. 
+ Many of these historians found the message on Asokan inscriptions very different
from that of most other rulers, suggesting that Asoka was more powerful and
industrious, as also more humble than later rulers who adopted grandiose titles.
+ So it is not surprising that nationalist leaders in the twentieth century regarded him
as an inspiring figure.
 NEW NOTIONS OF KINGSHIP:
Chiefs and kings in the south
+ New kingdoms emerged in the Deccan and further south
+  Included the chiefdoms of the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in Tamilakam.
+ the early Tamil Sangam texts contain poems describing chiefs and the ways in which they
acquired and distributed resources.
+ Many chiefs and kings, including the Satavahanas who ruled over parts of western and
central India 
+ the Shakas, a people of Central Asian origin who established kingdoms in the north-western
and western parts of the subcontinent, derived revenues from long-distance trade. 
Divine kings
+ One means of claiming high status was to identify with a variety of deities. 

+ This strategy is best exemplified by the Kushanas. 

+ ruled over a vast kingdom extending from Central Asia to northwest India. 

+ Their history has been reconstructed from inscriptions and textual traditions. 

+ The notions of kingship they wished to project are perhaps best evidenced in their
coins and sculpture. 
+ Colossal statues of Kushana rulers have been found installed in a shrine at Mat near
Mathura (Uttar Pradesh). 
+ Similar statues have been found in a shrine in Afghanistan as well. 

+ Some historians feel this indicates that the Kushanas considered themselves godlike. 

+ Many Kushana rulers also adopted the title devaputra, or “son of god”, possibly
inspired by Chinese rulers who called themselves sons of heaven.
THE GUPTAS
+ By the fourth century: the Gupta Empire. 
+ depended on samantas. 
+ Samantas offered homage and provided military support to
rulers. 
+ Histories of the Gupta rulers have been reconstructed from: 
1. literature, 
2. coins and inscriptions, including prashastis, composed in praise of
kings in particular, and patrons in general, by poets. 
 The Prayaga Prashasti (also known as the Allahabad Pillar
Inscription) composed in Sanskrit by Harishena, the court poet of
Samudragupta, the most powerful of the Gupta rulers 
CHANGING COUNTRYSIDE:
Popular perceptions of kings

+ Ordinary people rarely left accounts of their thoughts and

experiences. 
+ Historians have tried to solve this problem by examining
stories contained in the Jatakas and the Panchatantra. 
+ Many of these stories probably originated as popular oral
tales that were later committed to writing. 
+ The Jatakas were written in Pali around the middle of the
first millennium CE. 
+ One story known as the Gandatindu Jataka describes the
plight of the subjects of a wicked king;
 Strategies for
Shift to plough agriculture
increasing
production
Introduction of paddy
transplantation

Use of irrigation through

wells and tanks
The Buddhist tradition refers to landless agricultural labourers,
small peasants, as well as large landholders. 
Differences in
rural society
The term gahapati was often used in Pali texts to designate the
second and third categories. 

The large landholders, as well as the village headman emerged

as powerful figures, and often exercised control over other
cultivators. 

Early Tamil literature (the Sangam texts) also mentions

different categories of people living in the villages – large
landowners or vellalar, ploughmen or uzhavar and slaves or
adimai. 
Land grants and new rural elites
+ Grants of land being made, many of which were
recorded in inscriptions. 
+ Some of these inscriptions were on stone, but most
were on copper plates which were probably given as
a record of the transaction to those who received the
land. 
+ The records that have survived are generally about
grants to religious institutions or to Brahmanas. 
+ Most inscriptions were in Sanskrit.
+  In some cases, and especially from the seventh
century onwards, part of the inscription was in
Sanskrit, while the rest was in a local language such
as Tamil or Telugu.
 IMPACT OF
LAND
GRANTS
+ land grants were part of a strategy adopted by ruling
lineages to extend agriculture to new areas. Others suggest
that land grants were indicative of weakening political
power: as kings were losing control over their samantas,
they tried to win alliesby making grants of land. 
+ They also feel that kings tried to project themselves as
supermen because they were losing control: they wanted to
present at least a façade of power.
 TOWNS AND TRADE:
New cities
The urban centres emerged in
All major towns were located
several parts of the Many of these were capitals
along routes of
subcontinent from c. sixth of mahajanapadas. 
communication. 
century BCE.  

Others, such as Ujjayini,

Many cities like Mathura
were along land routes, and
Some such as Pataliputra were bustling centres of
yet others, such as Puhar,
were on riverine routes.  commercial, cultural and
were near the coast, from
political activity. 
where sea routes began. 
Urban populations: Elites and craftspersons

+ Kings and ruling elites lived in fortified cities. 

+ Although it is difficult to conduct extensive excavations at most sites because
people live in these areas even today (unlike the Harappan cities), a wide
range of artefacts have been recovered from them. 
+ These include fine pottery bowls and dishes, with a glossy finish, known as
Northern Black Polished Ware, probably used by rich people, and ornaments,
tools, weapons, vessels, figurines, made of a wide range of materials – gold,
silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta. 
By the second century BCE, we find short votive inscriptions in a number of
URBAN
cities. 
POPULATIONS
These mention the name of the donor, and sometimes specify his/ her
occupation as well. 

They tell us about people who lived in towns: washing folk, weavers, scribes,
carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, officials, religious teachers,
merchants and kings. 

Sometimes, guilds or shrenis, organisations of craft producers and merchants,

are mentioned as well. 

These guilds probably procured raw materials, regulated production, and

marketed the finished product. It is likely that craftspersons used a range of iron
tools to meet the growing demands of urban elites. 
Trade in the subcontinent and beyond
+ From the sixth century BCE, land and river routes criss-crossed the subcontinent and
extended in various directions – overland into Central Asia and beyond, and overseas,
from ports that dotted the coastline – extending across the Arabian Sea to East and
North Africa and West Asia, and through the Bay of Bengal to Southeast Asia and
China.
+ Rulers often attempted to control these routes, possibly by offering protection for a
price.
+ Those who traversed these routes included peddlers who probably travelled on foot
and merchants who travelled with caravans of bullock carts and pack-animals.
+ Also, there were seafarers, whose ventures were risky but highly profitable. 
Trade in the subcontinent and beyond
+ Successful merchants, designated as masattuvan in Tamil
and setthis and satthavahas in Prakrit, could become enormously rich.
+ A wide range of goods were carried from one place to another – salt,
grain, cloth, metal ores and finished products, stone, timber, medicinal
plants, to name a few.
+ Spices, especially pepper, were in high demand in the Roman Empire,
as were textiles and medicinal plants, and these were all transported
across the Arabian Sea to the Mediterranean.
Coins and kings
+ Punch-marked coins made of silver and copper were amongst
the earliest to be minted and used.  
+ Numismatists have studied these and other coins to reconstruct
possible commercial networks. 
+ Attempts made to identify the symbols on punchmarked coins
with specific ruling dynasties, including the Mauryas, suggest
that these were issued by kings. 
+ It is also likely that merchants, bankers and townspeople issued
some of these coins. 
+ The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were
issued by the Indo-Greeks. 
+ The Kushanas, however, issued the largest hoards of gold coins
first gold coins c. first century CE. 
+ These were virtually identical in weight with those issued by
contemporary Roman emperors and the Parthian rulers of Iran.
Coins and Kings
+ Hoards of Roman coins have been found
from archaeological sites in south India.
+ Coins were also issued by tribal republics
such as that of the Yaudheyas of Punjab
and Haryana. 
+ Some of the most spectacular gold coins
were issued by the Gupta rulers. 
+ The earliest issues are remarkable for their
purity. 
Deciphering Brahmi
+ Most scripts used to write modern Indian languages are
derived from Brahmi, the script used in most Asokan
inscriptions.
+ From the late eighteenth century, European scholars aided
by Indian pandits worked backwards from contemporary
Bengali and Devanagari manuscripts, comparing their
letters with older specimens.
+ Scholars who studied early inscriptions sometimes assumed
these were in Sanskrit, although the earliest inscriptions
were, in fact, in Prakrit.
+ James Prinsep was able to decipher Asokan Brahmi in
1838. 
How Kharosthi was read
Kharosthi, the script used in inscriptions in the northwest. 

The coins of Indo-Greek kings contain the names of kings written in Greek and Kharosthi scripts. 

European scholars who could read the former compared the letters. 

For instance, the symbol for “a” could be found in both scripts for writing names such as
Apollodotus. 

With Prinsep identifying the language of the Kharosthi inscriptions as Prakrit, it became possible to
read longer inscriptions as well.
The Limitations + letters are very faintly engraved. 
+ inscriptions may be damaged or letters missing.  

of Inscriptional + it is not always easy to be sure about the exact meaning of

the words used in inscriptions, some of which may be
Evidence specific to a particular place or time.
+ Although several thousand inscriptions have been
discovered, not all have been deciphered, published and
translated. 
+ Besides, many more inscriptions must have existed, which
have not survived the ravages of time. 
+ So what is available at present is probably only a fraction of
what was inscribed. There is another, perhaps more
fundamental, problem: not everything that we may
consider politically or economically significant was
necessarily recorded in inscriptions.
+ the name of the ruler, Asoka, is not mentioned in the inscription.
+ What is used instead are titles adopted by the ruler – devanampiya, often translated as
“beloved of the gods” and piyadassi, or “pleasant to behold”.
+ The name Asoka is mentioned in some other inscriptions, which also contain these titles.
+ After examining all these inscriptions, and finding that they match in terms of content, style,
language and palaeography, epigraphists have concluded that they were issued by the same
ruler.
+ Asoka claims that earlier rulers had no arrangements to receive reports. If you consider the
political history of the subcontinent prior to Asoka, do you think this statement is true?
Historians have to constantly assess statements made in inscriptions to judge whether they
are true, plausible or exaggerations. 
+ The orders of the king Thus speaks king Devanampiya Piyadassi: In
the past, there were no arrangements for disposing affairs, nor for
receiving regular reports. But I have made the following
(arrangement). Pativedakas should report to me about the affairs of the
people at all times, anywhere, whether I am eating, in the inner
apartment, in the bedroom, in the cow pen, being carried (possibly in a
palanquin), or in the garden. And I will dispose of the affairs of the
people everywhere.