CSE408

Fundamentals of Algorithms

Lecture #1

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
What is an algorithm?

An algorithm is a sequence of unambiguous instructions

for solving a problem, i.e., for obtaining a required
output for any legitimate input in a finite amount of time.

problem

algorithm

input “computer” output

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
Algorithm

 An algorithm is a sequence of unambiguous

instructions for solving a problem, i.e., for obtaining a
required output for any legitimate input in a finite
amount of time.

• Can be represented various forms

• Unambiguity/clearness
• Effectiveness
• Finiteness/termination
• Correctness
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
Historical Perspective

 Euclid’s algorithm for finding the greatest common divisor

 Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi – 9th century

mathematician
www.lib.virginia.edu/science/parshall/khwariz.html

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
Notion of algorithm and problem

problem

algorithm

input “computer” output

(or instance)

algorithmic solution
(different from a conventional solution)
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
Example of computational problem: sorting

 Statement of problem:
• Input: A sequence of n numbers <a1, a2, …, an>

• Output: A reordering of the input sequence <a´1, a´2, …, a´n> so that a´i ≤
a´j whenever i < j

 Instance: The sequence <5, 3, 2, 8, 3>

 Algorithms:
• Selection sort
• Insertion sort
• Merge sort
• (many others)

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
Selection Sort

 Input: array a[1],…,a[n]

 Output: array a sorted in non-decreasing order

 Algorithm:

for i=1 to n
swap a[i] with smallest of a[i],…,a[n]

• Is this unambiguous? Effective?

• See also pseudocode, section 3.1
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
Some Well-known Computational Problems

 Sorting
 Searching
 Shortest paths in a graph
 Minimum spanning tree
 Primality testing
 Traveling salesman problem
 Knapsack problem
 Chess
 Towers of Hanoi
 Program termination

Some of these problems don’t have efficient algorithms,

or algorithms at all!
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
Basic Issues Related to Algorithms

 How to design algorithms

 How to express algorithms

 Proving correctness

 Efficiency (or complexity) analysis

• Theoretical analysis

• Empirical analysis

 Optimality

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
Algorithm design strategies

 Brute force  Greedy approach

 Divide and conquer  Dynamic programming

 Decrease and conquer
 Backtracking and branch-and-bound
 Transform and conquer
 Space and time tradeoffs

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
Analysis of Algorithms

 How good is the algorithm?

• Correctness
• Time efficiency
• Space efficiency

 Does there exist a better algorithm?

• Lower bounds
• Optimality

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
What is an algorithm?

 Recipe, process, method, technique, procedure, routine,…

with the following requirements:
1. Finiteness
 terminates after a finite number of steps
2. Definiteness
 rigorously and unambiguously specified
3. Clearly specified input
 valid inputs are clearly specified
4. Clearly specified/expected output
 can be proved to produce the correct output given a valid input
5. Effectiveness
 steps are sufficiently simple and basic

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
Why study algorithms?

 Theoretical importance

• the core of computer science

 Practical importance

• A practitioner’s toolkit of known algorithms

• Framework for designing and analyzing algorithms for new problems

Example: Google’s PageRank Technology

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
Euclid’s Algorithm

Problem: Find gcd(m,n), the greatest common divisor of two

nonnegative, not both zero integers m and n

Examples: gcd(60,24) = 12, gcd(60,0) = 60, gcd(0,0) = ?

Euclid’s algorithm is based on repeated application of equality

gcd(m,n) = gcd(n, m mod n)
until the second number becomes 0, which makes the problem
trivial.

Example: gcd(60,24) = gcd(24,12) = gcd(12,0) = 12

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
Two descriptions of Euclid’s algorithm

Step 1 If n = 0, return m and stop; otherwise go to Step 2

Step 2 Divide m by n and assign the value of the remainder to r
Step 3 Assign the value of n to m and the value of r to n. Go to
Step 1.

while n ≠ 0 do
r ← m mod n
m← n
n←r
return m

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
Fundamentals of Algorithmic Problem Solving

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
Two main issues related to algorithms

 How to design algorithms

 How to analyze algorithm efficiency

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
Algorithm design techniques/strategies

 Brute force  Greedy approach

 Divide and conquer  Dynamic programming

 Decrease and conquer  Iterative improvement

 Transform and conquer  Backtracking

 Space and time tradeoffs  Branch and bound

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
Analysis of algorithms

 How good is the algorithm?

• time efficiency
• space efficiency
• correctness ignored in this course

 Does there exist a better algorithm?

• lower bounds
• optimality

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
Important problem types

 sorting

 searching

 string processing

 graph problems

 combinatorial problems

 geometric problems
 numerical problems

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
Sorting (I)

 Rearrange the items of a given list in ascending order.

• Input: A sequence of n numbers <a1, a2, …, an>
• Output: A reordering <a´1, a´2, …, a´n> of the input sequence such that a´1≤ a´2
≤ … ≤ a´n.
 Why sorting?
• Help searching
• Algorithms often use sorting as a key subroutine.
 Sorting key
• A specially chosen piece of information used to guide sorting. E.g., sort
student records by names.

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
Sorting (II)

 Examples of sorting algorithms

• Selection sort
• Bubble sort
• Insertion sort
• Merge sort
• Heap sort …
 Evaluate sorting algorithm complexity: the number of key comparisons.
 Two properties
• Stability: A sorting algorithm is called stable if it preserves the relative order of any
two equal elements in its input.
• In place : A sorting algorithm is in place if it does not require extra memory, except,
possibly for a few memory units.

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
Selection Sort

Algorithm SelectionSort(A[0..n-1])
//The algorithm sorts a given array by selection sort
//Input: An array A[0..n-1] of orderable elements
//Output: Array A[0..n-1] sorted in ascending order
for i  0 to n – 2 do
min  i
for j  i + 1 to n – 1 do
if A[j] < A[min]
min  j
swap A[i] and A[min]

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
Searching
 Find a given value, called a search key, in a given set.
 Examples of searching algorithms
• Sequential search
• Binary search …
Input: sorted array a_i < … < a_j and key x;
m (i+j)/2;
while i < j and x != a_m do
if x < a_m then j  m-1
else i  m+1;
if x = a_m then output a_m;

Time: O(log n)
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
String Processing

 A string is a sequence of characters from an alphabet.

 Text strings: letters, numbers, and special characters.
 String matching: searching for a given word/pattern in a text.

Examples:
(i) searching for a word or phrase on WWW or in a
Word document
(ii) searching for a short read in the reference genomic
sequence

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1
 ! ! !
ank You
Th

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. A. Levitin “Introduction to the Design & Analysis of Algorithms,” 2nd ed., Ch. 1