The document discusses cellular compartmentalization and interdependence between organelles. It describes how eukaryotic cells separate chemical reactions into different membrane-bound organelles for compatibility. It then outlines several major organelles like the nucleus, ER, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria and their functions. It discusses how these organelles evolved and developed specialized membrane transport systems to allow for communication and transport of molecules and proteins in coordination between compartments.
The document discusses cellular compartmentalization and interdependence between organelles. It describes how eukaryotic cells separate chemical reactions into different membrane-bound organelles for compatibility. It then outlines several major organelles like the nucleus, ER, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria and their functions. It discusses how these organelles evolved and developed specialized membrane transport systems to allow for communication and transport of molecules and proteins in coordination between compartments.
The document discusses cellular compartmentalization and interdependence between organelles. It describes how eukaryotic cells separate chemical reactions into different membrane-bound organelles for compatibility. It then outlines several major organelles like the nucleus, ER, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria and their functions. It discusses how these organelles evolved and developed specialized membrane transport systems to allow for communication and transport of molecules and proteins in coordination between compartments.
The document discusses cellular compartmentalization and interdependence between organelles. It describes how eukaryotic cells separate chemical reactions into different membrane-bound organelles for compatibility. It then outlines several major organelles like the nucleus, ER, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria and their functions. It discusses how these organelles evolved and developed specialized membrane transport systems to allow for communication and transport of molecules and proteins in coordination between compartments.
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Interdependencies and
Compartmentalization
Ms. Maryam Abdul Salam
BSc. (Hons) in Biomedical Science MSc. in Experimental Biotechnology Topics to be covered.. • Interdependence – Protein sorting – Energy requirements • Secretory pathways • Compartmentalization • Co-ordination between organelles Intracellular Compartments
• Cell carries different chemical
reactions at once which are not compatible
• Intracellular processes should be
separated Compartmentalization of Cells Major Organelles • Nucleus • ER • Golgi Apparatus • Mitochondria and Chloroplast • Lysosomes • Endosomes • Peroxisomes Compartmentalization of Cells • Volume of membrane bound organelles is almost ½ volume of a eukaryotic cell • Area & Mass – ER membrane is 20 – 30 times larger than the plasma membrane Evolution of Membrane enclosed organelles Endomembrane System
• Double membrane organelles • Have own genome Transport of proteins across the membranes
3 Types of Transport Mechanisms
1. Gated Transport: Gated channels Transportation between cytosol and nucleus 2. Transmembrane Transport: Protein translocators Transportation between cytosol and ER, Mitochondria, Chloroplast, Peroxisomes 3. Vesicular transport: Transportation between membrane enclosed intermediates Protein translocators
Vesicular transport Direction of proteins to destinations 1. Signal Sequence • Continuous sequence of 15-60 amino acids • Sometimes removed after sorting • Sometimes a part of finished protein (not removed) 2. Signal Patch • Specific 3D arrangement of amino acid residues in primary sequence, but closer in tertiary structure. • Not removed after sorting. Signal Sequence
• Although the function is the same, destination can be different Protein Sorting / Protein Targeting • Delivery of newly synthesized proteins to their cellular destination
• Include 2 processes – Targeting of a protein to the membrane of an intracellular organelle – Targeting to the ER membrane - entering the secretory pathway Transport of Molecules Between Nucleus and Cytosol • Nuclear Envelope – Inner membrane • Binding sites for chromosomes • Anchors nuclear lamina – Outer membrane • Connected to ER membrane • Nuclear Pore – Composed of a complex of about 30 different proteins • Polypeptide chains are largely disordered – Form gates for molecular transport • Prevent movement of large molecules (RNA, Ribosomal subunits, Newly made proteins) but allow small molecules Nuclear Localization Signal (NLS) • Signal that directs a protein from the cytosol into the nucleus – One or two short sequences – Contain several positively charged Lysine or Arginine – Recognized by cytosolic proteins - Nuclear Import Receptors. • Transport of Molecules Between Nucleus and Cytosol
Penetrates the pore by
Nuclear Import grabbing onto short, Receptors interact with repeated amino acid NLS & fibrils. sequences within the tangle of nuclear pore.
Empty receptor returns Enter the nucleus and
to the cytosol via the deliver cargo. nuclear pore for reuse. Transport of Molecules Between Nucleus and Cytosol • Transport proteins as, – Fully folded conformation • Import of nuclear proteins requires energy – Hydrolysis of GTP (Guanosine Triphosphate) by GTPase Protein Transport into the Mitochondria and Chloroplast
• Surrounded by inner and outer membranes
• Contain their own genomes • Make some of their own proteins • Most are imported from the cytosol • Translocation is governed by: – Signal Sequence • Amphipathic alpha helix cleaved after import – Protein Translocators • TOM (Translocon in the Outer Mitochondrial membrane) complex in the mitochondrial outer membrane • TIM23 and TIM22 complexes in the mitochondrial inner membrane Protein Transport into the Mitochondria Complex of receptor, precursor protein, Signal sequence on and translocator a precursor protein diffuses laterally in Receptor is is recognized by a the outer associated with a receptor in the membrane until it protein translocator. outer mitochondrial encounters a 2nd membrane. translocator in the inner membrane.
Protein is Signal sequence is transported across finally cleaved off . both the outer and inner membranes • During the process, the protein is unfolded. • Chaperones help to pull the protein across the membranes and to refold.
• Proteins are imported into chloroplasts by a similar
mechanism. Peroxisomes and Protein Import • Import signal - Short sequence of only 3 amino acids- Peroxisomal Target Signal • Recognized by receptor proteins (PEX receptor) in the cytosol • Protein translocators on peroxisome membranes aid in the transport • Proteins do not need to unfold Protein entering the Endoplasmic Reticulum • Serves as, – Entry point for proteins destined to other organelles – Entry point for proteins destined to the ER itself
• Kind of proteins that are transferred from the cytosol
to the ER: 1. Water soluble proteins 2. Prospective transmembrane proteins
All of these proteins are initially directed to the ER by an ER
signal sequence • Kinds of ribosomes – Membrane-bound ribosomes – Free ribosomes
• When a ribosome happens to be making a
protein with an ER signal sequence, the signal sequence directs the protein to the ER membrane. Protein entering to Endoplasmic Reticulum • Protein components that help to guide ER signal sequences to the ER membrane are,
– Signal-recognition particle (SRP)
– SRP receptor Translocation of Water soluble proteins SRP binds both the SRP engages with a SRP Once bound, SRP is ribosome and the ER receptor on the ER. released. signal sequence
Polypeptide is then Receptor passes the
threaded across the ER ribosome to a protein membrane through a translocator in the ER channel in the membrane, and protein translocator. synthesis recommences. Translocation of transmembrane proteins in the ER membrane • Complicated process • Once inserted into the membrane, a transmembrane protein does not change its orientation Translocation channel N-terminal start- Transfer process is releases the growing transfer sequence halted by a stop- polypeptide chain initiates the process transfer sequence sideways into the lipid bilayer
Start-transfer sequence Protein ends up as a is cleaved; Stop- single-pass; defined transfer sequence orientation remains in the bilayer Translocation of transmembrane proteins Vesicular Transport • Proteins and Lipid, – Transport from ER to the Golgi apparatus – From Golgi apparatus to other compartments of the endomembrane system – From the ER to the plasma membrane – Plasma membrane to lysosomes Transport of soluble proteins • Transport vesicle buds off from a compartment and fuse with another. • Take only the proteins appropriate to its destination • Must fuse only with the appropriate target membrane • Must maintain its own distinct identity – Own distinctive protein and lipid composition
• Different types of transport vesicles shuttle between the
various organelles Coated vesicles • Distinctive protein coat on cytosolic surface • Cells produce several kinds of coated vesicles, each with a distinctive protein coat • Functions – Shape the membrane into a bud – Captures molecules for onward transport Eg :- Vesicles that have an outer coat made of the protein clathrin Secretory Pathways • Vesicular traffic is confined to, – Interior of the cell – Extends to the plasma membrane – From the plasma membrane Outward Transport Golgi Cell ER apparatus surface
• Proteins enter the ER are chemically modified there
– Addition of Disulfide bonds – Glycosylation • Further modified in Golgi apparatus – Enter via Cis – Exit from Trans Exocytosis • Secretory proteins are released from the cell by Exocytosis
1. Constitutive exocytosis pathway 2. Regulated exocytosis pathway – In secretory cells – Hormone, mucus, or digestive enzymes Inward Transport • Eukaryotic cells take up fluid, large and small molecules by the process of Endocytosis
Material to be ingested Buds inward and then is progressively pinches off to form an Delivered to enclosed by a small intracellular endocytic endosomes portion of the plasma vesicle membrane.
The metabolites generated by digestion are transferred directly Recycled to the plasma out of the lysosome membrane or sent to into the cytosol, where lysosomes for digestion they can be used by the cell. Endocytosis • Two types – On the basis of the size of the endocytic vesicles 1. Pinocytosis • Ingestion of fluid and small molecules 2. Phagocytosis • Ingestion of large particles • Microorganisms and cell debris • Phagosomes
