STATISTICS

Dr. Miraflor C. Gutierrez

Program Chair - Graduate Studies
(Mathematics & Engineering Management)
 Why do we study statistics?

1. Numerical information is everywhere!

2. Statistical techniques are used to make many
decisions that affect our lives
3. A knowledge of statistical methods will help us
understand how decisions are made and how they
might affect us.
4. An understanding of data analysis is helpful in most
occupations
 Reasons for using statistics

• aid in summarization
• aid in “getting at what’s going on”
• aid in extracting “information” from the data
• aid in communication
 Origin of statistics

Statistics were obtained long before Christ

was born in order to prepare available
manpower and resources in wars
The word Statistics was derived from Italian
word statistica meaning statesman.
 Uses of statistics:
The main function of statistics is to enlarge our
knowledge of complex phenomena.
The following are some uses of statistics:
1. It presents facts in a definite and precise
form.
2. Data reduction.
3. Measuring the magnitude of variations in
data.
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 Uses of statistics:
4. Furnishes a technique of comparison
5. Estimating unknown population
characteristics.
6. Testing and formulating of hypothesis.
7. Studying the relationship between two or
more variable.
8. Forecasting future events

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 What is/are Statistics?
In Singular sense
Statistics means the art or science which is concerned
with the collection, presentation, and analysis of
quantitative data so that intelligent judgment may be
formed upon them.

In Plural sense
Statistics means information useful to decision makers
such as statistics on employment and unemployment,
or vital statistics on births, deaths and marriages.
 Classifications:
 Descriptive Statistics
Gives numerical and graphic
procedures to summarize a
collection of data in a clear and
understandable way

• Inferential Statistics
Provides procedures to draw
inferences about a population
from a sample
 Populations & Samples
Population –The entire set of individuals or objects of
interest or the measurements obtained from all
individuals or objects of interest

Sample – A portion, or part, of the population of

interest

Example:
In a recent survey, 250 college students at Union College
were asked if they smoked cigarettes regularly. 35 of the
students said yes. Identify the population and the sample.

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 Populations & Samples

Responses of all students at

Union College (population)

Responses of
students in survey
(sample)
 A Good Sample
o The sample needs to be substantial enough to
accurately represent the entire population.
o Every unit in the population has an equal and
independent probability of being chosen;
individuals are chosen at random.
o If data is not collected randomly, it cannot be
used in any meaningful way to draw
conclusions. Random (or probability) sampling
lowers bias and sample error.

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 Statistical data
The collection of data that are relevant to the problem being
studied is commonly the most difficult, expensive, and time-
consuming part of the entire research project.
Statistical data are usually obtained by counting or
measuring items.
Primary data are collected specifically for the analysis
desired
Secondary data have already been compiled and are
available for statistical analysis
A variable is an item of interest that can take on many
different numerical values.
A constant has a fixed numerical value.
 Data
Statistical data are usually obtained by counting or
measuring items. Most data can be put into the
following categories:
• Qualitative - data are measurements that each
fail into one of several categories. (hair color,
ethnic groups and other attributes of the
population)
• Quantitative - data are observations that are
measured on a numerical scale (distance
traveled to college, number of children in a
family, etc.)
 Types of Variables
• Variables can be classified as discrete or
continuous.
• Discrete variables (such as class size)
consist of indivisible categories, and
continuous variables (such as time or
weight) are infinitely divisible into
whatever units a researcher may choose.
For example, time can be measured to
the nearest minute, second, half-second,
etc.
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 Basic Concepts and Definition
Variable: A characteristic about each individual element of a
population or sample.
Data (singular): The value of the variable associated with
one element of a population or sample. This value may be
a number, a word, or a symbol.
Data (plural): The set of values collected for the variable
from each of the elements belonging to the sample.
Experiment: A planned activity whose results yield a set of
data.
Parameter: A numerical value summarizing all the data of
an entire population.
Statistic: A numerical value summarizing the sample data.
 Variable
A researcher may be interested in the
relation between class size (variable 1)
and academic performance (variable 2) for
the population of third-grade children.

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 Types of variables
Variables

Qualitative Quantitative

Dichotomic Polynomic Discrete Continuous

Children in family, Amount of income

Gender, marital Brand of Pc, hair
Strokes on a golf tax paid, weight of a
status color
hole student
Example: A college dean is interested in learning about the average
age of faculty. Identify the basic terms in this situation.

The population is the age of all faculty members at the college.

A sample is any subset of that population. For example, we might
select 10 faculty members and determine their age.
The variable is the “age” of each faculty member.
One data would be the age of a specific faculty member.
The data would be the set of values in the sample.
The experiment would be the method used to select the ages forming
the sample and determining the actual age of each faculty member in
the sample.
The parameter of interest is the “average” age of all faculty at the
college.
The statistic is the “average” age for all faculty in the sample.
The variables in a study of a cause-and-effect
relationship are called the independent and
dependent variables.

The independent variable is the cause. Its value

is independent of other variables

The dependent variable is the effect. Its

value depends on changes in the independent
variable.

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Research Question Independent variable(s) Dependent variable(s)

Do tomatoes grow fastest under •The type of light the •The rate of growth of
fluorescent, incandescent, or tomato plant is grown the tomato plant
natural light? under

What is the effect of diet and •The type of soda you •Your blood sugar levels
regular soda on blood sugar drink (diet or regular)
levels?

How does phone use before •The amount of phone •Number of hours of
bedtime affect sleep? use before bed sleep
•Quality of sleep

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 Measuring Variables
• To establish relationships between variables,
researchers must observe the variables and
record their observations. This requires that
the variables be measured.
• The process of measuring a variable requires a
set of categories called a scale of
measurement and a process that classifies
each individual into one category.

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 4 Types of Measurement Scales
1. A nominal scale is an unordered set of
categories identified only by name. Nominal
measurements only permit you to determine
whether two individuals are the same or
different.
2. An ordinal scale is an ordered set of
categories. Ordinal measurements tell you
the direction of difference between two
individuals.

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 4 Types of Measurement Scales
3. An interval scale is an ordered series of equal-sized
categories. Interval measurements identify the
direction and magnitude of a difference. The zero
point is located arbitrarily on an interval scale.
4. A ratio scale is an interval scale where a value of
zero indicates none of the variable. Ratio
measurements identify the direction and
magnitude of differences and allow ratio
comparisons of measurements.

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 Applications of Statistics
• describe the characteristic of the elements in the
population under study through the computation
or estimation of a parameter such as the
proportion, total, and average

• compare the characteristics of the elements in

the different subgroups in the population through
contrasts of their respective summary measures
 Applications of Statistics
• justify an assertion made by the researcher about a
particular characteristic of the population or
subgroups in the population

• determine the nature and strength of relationships

among the different variables of interest such as the
relationship of a person’s grade when he graduated
from college with his current income, or, the
relationship of a person’s calorie intake and aerobic
exercise with his weight
 Applications of Statistics
• identify the different groups of inter-related
variables under study
• reveal the natural groupings of the elements
in the population based on the values of a
set of variables
• determine the effects of one or more
variables on a response variable
 Applications of Statistics
• clarify patterns and trends in the values of a
variable over time or space

• predict future outcomes such as next year’s

GNP or next quarter’s demand for various
agricultural products
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