Chapter - 7

Distributed Databases system

1
 Outline
1 Distributed Database Concepts

2 Data Fragmentation, Replication and Allocation

3 Types of Distributed Database Systems

4 Query Processing

5 Concurrency Control and Recovery

6 3-Tier Client-Server Architecture

 Distributed Database Concepts

– Distributed database - logically interrelated collection of

shared data (and a description of this data) physically

distributed over a computer network.

– DDBMS is a software system that manages a distributed

database while making the distribution transparent to the
user.
• A DDBMS therefore has the following characteristics:

– a collection of logically related shared data;

– the data is split into a number of fragments;

– fragments may be replicated;

– fragments/replicas are allocated to sites;

– the sites are linked by a communications network;

– the data at each site is under the control of a DBMS;

– the DBMS at each site can handle local applications, autonomously;

– each DBMS participates in at least one global application.

 Advantages DDS
1. Management of distributed data with different levels of
transparency:
– Distribution transparency:

• This refers to the physical placement of data (files,

relations, etc.) is not known to the user.
− Network transparency: Users do not have to worry about
operational details of the network.
− Location transparency: refers to freedom of issuing command from
any location without affecting its working.
 Con…
− Naming transparency: allows access to any named object (files, relations,
etc.) from any location.
− Replication transparency: Allows to store copies of a data at multiple sites.

• This is done to minimize access time to the required data.

− Fragmentation transparency: Allows to segment a relation

horizontally (create a subset of tuples of a relation) or vertically (create a

subset of columns of a relation).

 Advantages of DDS
2. Increase reliability and availability:
− Reliability refers to system live time, that is, system is running efficiently most
of the time.
− Availability is the probability that the system is continuously available (usable
or accessible) during a time interval.
− A distributed database system has multiple nodes (computers) and if one fails
then others are available to do the job.
3. Improved performance:
− A DDBMS fragments the database to keep data closer to where it is needed
most.
− This reduces data management (access and modification) time significantly.
4. Easier expansion (scalability):
− Allows new nodes (computers) to be added anytime without chaining the entire
configuration.
 Disadvantages DDS
– Complexity

– Cost

– Security

– Integrity control more difficult

– Lack of standards

– Lack of experience

– Database design more complex

 Database system architectures
 A Database Architecture is a representation of DBMS design.
It helps to design, develop, implement, and maintain the
database management system.

1. Centralized database architecture

2. Parallel database architectures

3. A truly distributed database architecture

Centralized database
• A centralized database is basically a type of database that is
stored, located and maintained at a single location only.
• This type of database is modified and managed from that
location itself.
Parallel database architectures

 Parallel DBMSs link multiple, smaller machines to achieve

the same throughput as a single, larger machine, often with
greater scalability and reliability
 The three main architectures for parallel DBMSs:

 Shared memory(tightly coupled)

 Shared disk (loosely coupled architecture)

 Shared nothing-(massively parallel processing (MPP))

architecture
The three main architectures for parallel DBMSs:

■ Shared memory - tightly coupled architecture in which multiple processors

share secondary (disk) storage and primary memory.
The three main architectures for parallel DBMSs:

 Shared disk -loosely coupled architecture where multiple processors

share secondary (disk) storage but each has their own primary memory.
The three main architectures for parallel DBMSs:

 Shared nothing-(massively parallel processing (MPP)) architecture.

• Multiple processor architecture in which each processor is part of a
complete system, with its own memory and disk storage.
Distributed database
• A distributed database system allows applications to access data
from local and remote databases.

Site 1
Distributed database
• There are two types of distributed database architecture:
• Homogeneous Distributed Database.
• Heterogeneous Distributed Database.
 Types of Distributed Database Systems

Autonomous Database
An autonomous database is a cloud database that uses machine learning to
automate database tuning, security, backups, updates, and other routine
management tasks traditionally performed by DBAs.
 Homogeneous
• All sites of the database system have identical setup, i.e., same database
system software.
• The underlying operating systems can be a mixture of Linux, Window,
Unix, etc.
• For example, all sites run Oracle or DB2, or Sybase or some other database
system.
Window
Advantages Site 5 Unix
Oracle Site 1
 Easy to use Oracle
Window
 Easy to mange Site 4 Communications
neteork
 Easy to Design
Oracle
Disadvantages Site 3 Site 2
Linux Oracle Linux Oracle
 Difficult for most organizations to
force a homogeneous environment
Heterogeneous
 Different data center may run different DBMS products, with possibly different underlying data models.

 Translations required to allow for:

o Different hardware.
o Different DBMS products.
o Different hardware and different DBMS products.

Object Unix Relational

Oriented Site 5 Unix
Site 1
Hierarchical
Window
Site 4 Communications
network

Network
Object DBMS
Oriented Site 3 Site 2 Relational
Linux Linux
Heterogeneous
 Advantages
 Huge data can be stored in one Global center from different data center
 Remote access is done using the global schema.
 Different DBMSs may be used at each node

 Disadvantages
 Difficult to mange
 Difficult to design.

.
 Federated Database Management Systems

• A federated database system - collection of cooperating database systems

that are autonomous and possibly heterogeneous.
• Differences in data models

• Differences in constraints

• Differences in query language

• Multidatabase system (MDBS): A distributed DBMS in which each site

maintains complete autonomy.
 Client/server architecture
• Client/server architecture refers to the way in which computers
interact to form a system.
Distributed Processing and Distributed Database
DDBMS Components
Computer workstations
 To form the network system.
Network hardware and software
 Components that reside in each workstation.
Communications media
 Carry the data from one workstation to another.
Transaction processor (TP)
 Receives and Processes the application’s data requests.
Data processor (DP)
 Stores and Retrieves data located at the site.
 Also Known as data manager (DM).
 DDBMS protocol
• determines how the DDBMS will:
– Interface with the network to transport data and commands
between DPs and TPs.
– Synchronize all data received from DPs (TP side) and route
retrieved data to the appropriate TPs (DP side).
– Ensure common database functions in a distributed system --
security, concurrency control, backup, and recovery.
• Single-Site Processing, Single-Site Data (SPSD)
– All processing is done on a single CPU or host computer.

– All DBMS are stored on the host computer’s local disk.

– The DBMS is accessed by dumb terminals.

– Most mainframe and minicomputer DBMSs.

– 1st generation single-user microcomputer database.

Non distributed (Centralized) DBMS
− MPSD requires a network file server on which conventional applications
are accessed through a LAN.

− Client/Server architecture.
– Fully distributed DBMS with support for multiple DPs and
TPs at multiple sites.
– Homogeneous DDMS
 Integrate only one type of centralized DBMS over the network.

– Heterogeneous DDBMS
 Integrate different types of centralized DBMSs over a network.
Distributed DB Transparency
– Distribution transparency
– Transaction transparency
– Failure transparency
– Performance transparency
– Heterogeneity transparency
 Distribution Transparency
• Distribution transparency allows us to manage a physically
dispersed database as though it were a centralized database.

• Three Levels of Distribution Transparency

– Fragmentation transparency

– Location transparency

– Local mapping transparency

Distribution Transparency
• Example :
Employee data (EMPLOYEE) are distributed over three locations: New York,
Atlanta, and Miami.
Depending on the level of distribution transparency support, three different cases of
queries are possible:
Distribution Transparency
• Case 1: DB Supports Fragmentation Transparency
SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE EMP_DOB < '01-JAN-1940';

• Case 2: DB Supports Location Transparency

SELECT * FROM E1 WHERE EMP_DOB < '01-JAN-1940';
UNION
SELECT * FROM E2 WHERE EMP_DOC < '01-JAN-1940';
UNION
SELECT * FROM E3 WHERE EMP_DOC < '01-JAN-1940';

• Case 3: DB Supports Local Mapping Transparency

SELECT * FROM E1 NODE NY WHERE EMP_DOB < '01-JAN-1940';
UNION
SELECT * FROM E2 NODE ATL WHERE EMP_DOB < '01-JAN-1940';
UNION
SELECT * FROM E3 NODE MIA WHERE EMP_DOB < '01-JAN-1940';
Transaction Transparency
• Transaction transparency - ensures that database transactions

will maintain the database’s integrity and consistency.

• Transaction transparency consists:

– Remote Requests

– Remote Transactions

– Distributed Transactions

– Distributed Requests
 A Remote Request
 Allows us to access data to be processed by a single remote database
processor.
 A Remote Transaction
 Composed of several requests, may access data at only a single
site.
 Allows a transaction to reference several different (local or remote) DP
sites.
 A Distributed Request
 Reference data from several remote DP sites.
 Allows a single request to reference a physically partitioned table.

Example2:
Distributed Request
 Transaction Transparency
 Two-Phase Commit Protocol
 DO performs the operation and records the “before” and “after”
values in the transaction log.
 UNDO reverses an operation, using the log entries written by the
DO portion of the sequence.
 REDO redoes an operation, using the log entries written by DO
portion of the sequence.

– The write-ahead protocol forces the log entry to be written to

permanent storage before the actual operation takes place.
 Two-Phase Commit Protocol
• Two-phase commit protocol defines the operations between two
nodes;
• Coordinator and

• Subordinates or cohorts - one or more

 Two-Phase Commit Protocol
• The protocol is implemented in two phases:
• Phase 1: Preparation

• The coordinator sends a PREPARE TO COMMIT message to all

subordinates.
• The subordinates receive the message, write the transaction log
using the write-ahead protocol, and send an acknowledgement
message to the coordinator.
• The coordinator makes sure that all nodes are ready to commit,
or it aborts the transaction.
Two-Phase Commit Protocol
 Phase 2: The Final Commit

– The coordinator broadcasts a COMMIT message to all

subordinates and waits for the replies.

– Each subordinate receives the COMMIT message then updates

the database, using the DO protocol.
– The subordinates reply with a COMMITTED or NOT COMMITTED
message to the coordinator.
– If one or more subordinates uncommitted, the coordinator sends
an ABORT message, thereby forcing them to UNDO all changes.
 Performance Transparency and
Query Optimization

• Query optimization must provide distribution transparency as

well as replica transparency.

• Replica transparency refers to the DDBMSs ability to hide the

existence of multiple copies of data from the user.

• Query optimization algorithms are based on two principles:

• Selection of the optimum execution order

• Selection of sites to be accessed to minimize communication

costs
 Operation Modes of Query Optimization
– Automatic query optimization
DDBMS finds the most cost-effective access path without user intervention.
– Manual query optimization
Optimization is selected and scheduled by the end user or programmer.

• Timing of Query Optimization

– Static query optimization takes place at compilation time.

– Dynamic query optimization takes place at execution time.
• Optimization Techniques Information -
– Statistically based query optimization
uses statistical information about the database.
– Rule-based query optimization algorithm

based on a set of user-defined rules to determine the best query access

strategy.
 Distributed Database Design

 The design of a distributed database introduces three new issues:

– How to partition the database into fragments.
– Which fragments to replicate.
– Where to locate those fragments and replicas.
 Data Fragmentation
 Data fragmentation allows us to break a single object
into two or more segments or fragments.
 Three Types of Fragmentation Strategies:

 Horizontal fragmentation

 Vertical fragmentation

 Mixed fragmentation
 Data Fragmentation
 Horizontal Fragmentation - Consists of a subset of the tuples
of a relation.
 Fragment represents the equivalent of a SELECT statement, with
the WHERE clause on a single attribute.
 Data Fragmentation
 Vertical fragment Consists of a subset of the attributes of a
relation.
 Equivalent to the PROJECT statement.
 Data Fragmentation

 Mixed fragment - Consists of a horizontal

fragment that is subsequently vertically
fragmented, or a vertical fragment that is
then horizontally fragmented.
 A mixed fragment is defined using the
Selection and Projection operations of the
relational algebra.
 Data Replication

 Data replication refers to the storage of data copies at multiple

sites served by a computer network.
– Enhance data availability and response time, reducing
communication and total query costs.
 Data Replication
• Mutual Consistency Rule
– All copies of data fragments be identical.
– DDBMS must ensure that a database update is performed at
all sites where replicas exist.
• Replication Conditions
– Fully Replicated database stores multiple copies of all
database fragments at multiple sites.
– Partially Replicated database stores multiple copies of some
database fragments at multiple sites.
• Factors for Data Replication Decision
– Database Size
– Usage Frequency
 Data Allocation
 Data allocation describes the processing of deciding where to
locate data.
 Data Allocation Strategies
– Centralized
The entire database is stored at one site.
– Partitioned
The database is divided into several disjoint parts (fragments)
and stored at several sites.
– Replicated
Copies of one or more database fragments are stored at several
sites.
Data allocation algorithms
• Data allocation algorithm take into consideration a variety of
factors:

– Performance and data availability goals

– Size, number of rows, the number of relations that an entity

maintains with other entities.

– Types of transactions to be applied to the database, the

attributes accessed by each of those transactions.
 Questions ?
1. Explain what is meant by a DDBMS and discuss the motivation in
providing such a system.

2. Compare and contrast a DDBMS with a parallel DBMS. Under what

circumstances would you choose a DDBMS over a parallel DBMS?

3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a DDBMS.

4. What is the difference between a homogeneous and a heterogeneous

DDBMS? Under what circumstances would such systems generally
arise?