Building End

AMBO UNIVERSITY
HACHALU HUNDESSA CAMPUS

DEPARTEMENT OF COTM
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION (CENG 4113)
CHAPTER-
.
CONTENTS
 Introduction
 Types of roofs
 Sloping (pitched) roofs
 Forms of sloping roofs
 Types of sloping roofs
 Roof coverings for sloping
roofs
 Flat roofs
 Types of flat roof coverings
 Dome and shell roofs
ROOF AND ROOF COVERINGS
1. INTRODUCTION
 A roof is defined as the upper most part of the building, provided as
a structural covering, to protect the building from weather.

 A roof consists of structural elements, which support roof coverings.
The structural elements may be trusses, beams, slabs, shells or

domes.
 The roof coverings may be corrugated metal sheets, RC slabs, tiles,
etc.
Requirements of a roof
 The requirements of a good roof are summarised as follow:
i. It should have adequate strength and stability to carry the super-

imposed dead and live loads.
ii. It should effectively protect the building against rain, sun, wind,
etc and it should be durable against the adverse effects of these
agencies.
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1. INTRODUCTION
Requirements of a roof
iii. It should be water proof and should have efficient drainage
arrangements.
iv. It should provide adequate thermal insulation.
v. It should be fire resistant.
vi. It should provide adequate insulation against sound.
2. TYPES OF ROOFS
 The general types of roofs are:
 Pitched or Slopping roofs,

 Flat roofs or terraced roofs, and
 Curved roofs.
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2. TYPES OF ROOFS
 The selection of the type of roof depends upon:
 Shape or plan of the building,

 Climatic conditions of the area,
 Type of construction materials available.
 Pitched roofs:
 Have slopping top surfaces.

 Are suitable in those areas where rainfall/snow fall is very heavy
 Use to cover satisfactorily those buildings with limited width and
simple shape
 Flat roofs:
 Considered suitable for buildings in plains or in hot regions where

rainfall is moderate and snow fall is not there.
 Are equally applicable to buildings of any shape and size.
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2. TYPES OF ROOFS
 Curved roofs:
 Have their top surface curved.

 Such roofs are provided to give architectural effects.
 Such roofs include cylindrical and parabolic shells and domes
2.1 Slopping (pitched) roofs
 Pitched roof is the most common form of roof and is generally
regarded as the cheapest alternative for covering a structure.

 Pitched roof is almost always constructed in wood or steel.
 In pitched roofs a slope of less than l in 3 is generally not
considered satisfactory from drainage point of view.

 in areas of heavy snowfall, steeper slopes( 1:1.5 or1:1) are provided
to reduce the incidence of snow load on the roof.
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2. TYPES OF ROOFS
2.1 Slopping (pitched) roofs
 The various shapes of pitched roof depend on
 The area covered

 Materials available
 Type of lighting and ventilation needed inside
 Available appliance, etc.
2.1.1 Forms of sloping roofs
 Slopping roofs are basically of the following forms:
a) Shed roof: it is the simplest type and slopes only in one direction.
 It is used for smaller span and is also known as lean to roof.
 At the upper ends, the rafters are nailed to the wooden wall
plate, which may be of stone, brick or steel.
 At the lower end the rafters are notched and nailed to the
wooden post plate.
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b) Gable roof: it slopes in two directions and is commonly used.
 It is formed by a pair of inclined rafters with their upper ends
nailed to a common ridge piece and their low ends, notched
and nailed to the wooden wall plates embedded in masonry
on the top of the wall on either end.
c) Hip roof: It slopes in four directions such that the end formed by
intersection of slopes results in triangular and/ or trapezoidal form.
d) Butterfly roof: It slopes in two directions and intersect at the
centre of the span and will have common drainage system.
e) Pyramid roof: It is similar to hip roofs, slopes in four directions and
the intersections of slopes make a pyramid.
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9
Shed roof Gable roof
Gambrel roof Hip roof 10

Flat roof Mansard roof
Gable dormer roof Shed dormer roof 11

2.1.2 Elements of slopping roofs
 Some of the important elements of pitched roofs are:
a) Span: It is the clear distance between the supports of an arch, beam

or roof truss.
b) Rise: It is the vertical distance between the top of the ridge and the
wall plate.
c) Pitch: It is the inclination of the sides of a roof to the horizontal
plane. Either it is expressed in terms of angles (degrees) or as ratio of
rise to span.
d) Ridge: It is defined as the apex line of the sloping roof. It is thus the
apex of the angle formed by the termination of the inclined surfaces
at the top of a slope.
e) Eaves: The lower edge of the inclined roof surface. From the lower
edge (eaves), the rainwater from the roof surface drops down.
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f) Hip: It is the ridge formed by the intersection of two sloping

surfaces, where the exterior angle is greater than 180 0.
g) Valley: It is a reverse of a hip. It is formed by the intersection of two
roof surfaces, making an external angle less than 180 0.
h) Hipped end: It is the sloped triangular surface formed at the end of a
roof.
i) Verge: The edge of a gable, running between the eaves and ridge, is
known as a verge.
j) Rafters: These are horizontal wooden or steel members, used to
support common rafters of a roof when span is large. Purlins are
supported on trusses or walls.
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f) Purlins: They are inclined wooden members on which roof coverings

rest.
g) Eaves board: Also known as Fascia board. It is a wooden plank or
board fixed to the feet of the common rafters at the eaves. It is
usually 25mm thick and 20cm wide. The ends of lower most roof
covering material rest upon it. The eaves gutter, if any, can also be
secured against it.
h) Battens: These are thin strips of wood, called scantlings, which are
nailed to the rafters for laying roof material above.
i) Truss: A roof truss is a framework, usually of triangles, designed to
support the roof covering or ceiling over rooms.
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15
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2.1.3 Types of slopping roofs
 Pitched roofs are basically categorised under three categories.
 Single roof,
 Double or purlin roofs, and
 Tripled-member or framed or trussed roofs.
a) single roof: This roof consists of common rafters that are secured at
the ridge and wall plates. The various forms of this types are as
follows:
i. Lean to roof: Is a roof, which covers the verandas of a building
and projects from the main wall of the building.
 It is suitable for spaces up to 2.5m and is generally used for
sheds, out-houses attached to the main buildings, verandas,
etc.
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WALL SYSTEMS
ii. Couple roof: each couple or pair of common rafters is made
to slope upwards from the opposite walls and they are
supported at the upper ends at the ridge piece or ridge board
in the middle.
 The lower ends of the common rafters are fixed to the wall
plates embedded in the masonry on the top of the walls.
iii. Couple-close roof: It is similar to a couple roof except that
the legs of the common rafters are closed by a horizontal tie
known as tie beam.
 This tie beam is connected at the feet of the common rafters
to check their tendency of spreading out wards and hence
save the walls from the danger of overturning.
 Under normal loading conditions, this type of roof can be
used for maximum span of 4.5m.
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iv. Collar-beam roof: This is similar to the couple-close roof,
except that the horizontal tie is now raised up from the feet of
the rafters to almost the middle of the rafters.
 It is considered to be suitable for spans varying 4-5.5m.
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b) Double or purlin roof: Additional members called Purlins are
introduced to support the common rafter at intermediate point.
 The purlins are used to tie the rafters together and act as
intermediate support.
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c) Trussed roof: Trussed roofs are usually used when the span
exceeds 5m and where there are no inside walls to support purlins.
 The spacing of trusses depends upon the various factors, such as
loads on roof, position of cross walls, span, material of truss,
etc. and are spaced not more than 3m centre to centre.
 There are three elements in a trussed roof system:
 Rafters which support the roofing materials,
 Purlins to provide intermediate support to rafters, and
 Trusses to provide support to the ends of purlins.
 The various types of trusses include:
♠ King-post ♠ Queen-post ♠ Combination of king and

queen
♠ Mansard ♠ Truncated ♠ Bel-fast
♠ Steel ♠ Composite
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i. King-post truss: Consists of i) lower tie beam ii) two inclined
principal rafters iii) two struts, and iv) a king post
 The spacing of king post is limited to 3m.
 The truss is suitable for spans varying b/n 5-8m.
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ii. Queen-post truss: differs from a king-post truss in having two
vertical posts , rather than one. The vertical posts are known as
queen posts.
 The tops of queen post are connected by a horizontal piece known
as straining beam.
 These trusses are suitable for spans b/n 8-12 meters.
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iii. Combination of King-post and queen-post trusses:
 For greater spans, the queen-post truss can be strengthened by one
or more upright member, called princess-post to each side.
 They are suitable for spans up to 18m.
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iv. Mansard roof truss:
 It is a combination of king-post and queen post trusses.
 It is a two-storey truss, with upper portion consisting of King-post
truss and the lower portion of queen post-truss.
 The entire truss has two pitches. The upper pitch varies from 30-
40° while the lower pitches varies from 60 to 70°.
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v. Truncated roof truss:
 It is similar to mansard truss except that its top is formed flat, with a
gentle slope to one side.
 It is used when it is required to provide a room in the roof, b/n the
two queen posts.
vi. Bel-fast roof truss (Bow string truss):
 This truss, in the form of a bow, consists of thin sections of timber,
with its top curved.
 If the roof covering is light, this roof truss can be used up to 30m
span.
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vii. Composite roof truss:
 Roof truss made of two materials are known as composite roof
trusses.
 In a composite truss, the tension members are made of steel, while
compression members are made of timber.
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Steel roof trusses:
 When the span exceeds 10m, timber trusses become heavy and
uneconomical. Steel trusses are commonly used for the following

reasons:
 More economical
 Easy to construct or fabricate
 Fire proof
 More rigid and permanent.
 Steel trusses are fabricated from rolled steel structural members
such as channel, angles, RHS, T-sections and plates.

 Steel trusses may be grouped in the following categories:
♦ Open trusses ♦ North light trusses

♦ Bow string trusses ♦ Arched rib trusses
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Steel roof trusses:
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Steel roof trusses:
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Steel roof trusses:
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Steel roof trusses:
 Steel trusses have the following advantages over timber trusses:
i. The sections comprising of a steel truss are readily available in the

required dimension, resulting in minimum wastage.
ii. Steel trusses are light in weight, and can be fabricated in any shape
depending upon structural and architectural requirement.
iii. Steel trusses are stronger and more rigid in comparison to timber
trusses. The members are equally strong in tension and
compression.
iv. Steel truss can be used over any span, while timber trusses are
suitable only up to 15m span.
v. Steel trusses are fire proof and termite proof.
vi. Steel trusses are most resistant to other environmental agencies.
vii. The fabrication of steel truss is easier and quicker.
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2.1.3 Roof coverings for sloping roof
 Roof covering is a material, which gives a protective surface to the
roofing structure.
 The function of the covering is only to prevent ingress or egress of
heat and moisture into the building.

 It does not withstand structural loads, which are directly taken by
the roofing elements.

 There are various types of coverings and the selection depends on:
 the character of the building,

 the type of roofing structure,
 Initial cost,
 Maintenance requirement,
 Fabrication facilities,
 Fabrication and special features of the locality,
 Durability, availability of the material and climate of the locality.
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 Some of the different types of coverings which are used for slopping
roofs are:
 Thatch roof covering
 Galvanized corrugated iron/steel sheet
 Corrugated Asbestos cement Sheets
 Fiber Cement Profiled sheets
 Aluminum sheeting
 Harvey roof tile coverings
 Decra roof tiles
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 The various types of roof coverings materials commonly used are:
thatch, wood, tiles, asbestos cement sheet, galvanised corrugated

iron sheets, aluminium sheeting, etc.
i. Thatch roof coverings
 It is one of the most ancient types of roof covering and is mainly
used in village areas.

 Thatch roof cover is suitable for rural buildings mainly because the
cost is very low and thatch is abundantly available in those regions.
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i. Thatch roof coverings
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ii. Galvanised corrugated iron/steel sheet
 Galvanization means that the iron/steel sheet is covered with a thin
layer of zinc to protect it from rusting.

 The corrugation means that the sheet is made more resistant to
bending stresses lengthwise.

 The gauge indicates the thickness G-24=0.549mm, G-26=0.457mm,
G-28=0.376mm, G-30=0.315mm, G-32=0.274mm and G-35=0.2mm .
 It is required that a sheet should be strong enough to carry, without
buckling, the load of full grown man.
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iii. Corrugated Asbestos Cement Sheets
 Corrugated asbestos cement sheets were frequently used as the
major covering material for mainly steel roof structures.

 It was made from cement and about 15% asbestos fibers together
with a controlled amount of water.

 The sheets made out of these materials are light, cheap, impervious,
and durable and fire resisting.

 It does not necessarily require any protective paint and cannot be
eaten by vermin.
 Nowadays, however, concern with the health risk attached to the
manufacture and use of asbestos-based products has led to the

development and production of alternative fiber-based materials.
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iii. Corrugated Asbestos Cement Sheets
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iv. Fiber Cement Profiled Sheets
 Fiber cement sheets are made by combining natural and synthetic
non-toxic fibers and fillers with Portland cement and unlike asbestos
cement sheets which are rolled to form the required profile, these
sheets are pressed over templates.
 The finished product has a natural gray color but sheets with factory
applied surface coatings are available.

v. Aluminum Sheeting
 This form of roof covering is available in a corrugated or troughed
profile.
 The sheets are normally made from an aluminum-manganese alloy
resulting in a non-corrosive, non-combustible lightweight sheet

(2.4-5kg/m2).
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v. Aluminum Sheeting
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vi. Copper Sheeting
 Copper has been used as a building material for many centuries. It is
a dense material, which is highly ductile and malleable and can be

cold worked into the required shape or profile.
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vi. Copper Sheeting
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vii. Clay Roof Covering
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2.2. Flat Roof
 A roof, which is nearly flat, with angles less than 10 0 to the
horizontal, is known as flat roof.

 With the advent of very reliable waterproofing and heat insulating
material, flat roof construction has replaced the pitched roofs in

many types of constructions.
 Although flat roofs have high initial cost, they are extensively
adopted even in places where rainfall is heavy.

 Drainage of flat roofs is one of the basic requirements. The
rainwater should be drained-off from roof surface easily and

quickly; otherwise it will lead to leakage.
 To achieve watertight roof surface, the selection of slopes and drain-
outlets, depending upon the roofing materials and climatic

conditions, should be done carefully.
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2.2. Flat Roof
 Flat roofs are often considered to be a simple form of construction,
but unless correctly designed and constructed, they can be an

endless source of trouble.
 The advantages and disadvantages are discussed as follow:
Advantages of Flat Roof

1) The roof can be used as terrace for playing, gardening, sleeping
and for celebrating functions.
2) Construction and maintenance is easier.
3) They can be easily made fire proof, in comparison to pitched
roof.
4) They avoid the enclosure of the triangular space. Due to this the
architectural appearance of the building is very much improved.
5) Flat roofs they have better insulating properties.
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2.2. Flat Roof
Advantages of Flat Roof
6) They require lesser area of roofing material than pitched roof.
7) They are more stable against high wind.
8) They do not require false ceiling, which are essential in pitched
roofs.
9) Flat roofs are proved to be overall economical.
10) In multi-story buildings, flat roof is the only choice, since
overhead water tanks and other services are located on the
terrace.
11) The construction of upper floors can be easily done over flat
roofs, if so required in the future.
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2.2. Flat Roof
Disadvantages of Flat Roof
1) The span of flat roof is restricted, unless intermediate columns
are introduced. Pitched roofs can be used over large span.
2) The self weight of flat roof is very high. Due to this, the sizes of
beams, columns, foundations, and other structural members are
heavy.
3) They are unsuitable at places of heavy rainfall.
4) They are highly unsuitable to hilly areas or other areas where
there is heavy snow fall.
5) They are vulnerable to heavy temperature variations, especially
in tropics, due to which cracks are developed on the surface.
These cracks may lead to water penetration later, if not repaired
in time.
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2.2. Flat Roof
Disadvantages of Flat Roof
6) It is difficult to locate and rectify leak in flat roof.
7) The speed of flat roof construction is much slower than the
pitched roof.
8) The initial cost of flat roof is more than pitched roof.
9) The flat roof exposes the entire building to the weather
agencies, while the projecting elements (such as eaves etc.) of
pitched roof provide some protection to the building.
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2.3. Curved Roofs
2.3.1 Shells
 A shell is structural curved skin covering a given plan shape and
area where the forces in the shell or membrane are compressive and
in the restraining edge beams are tensile.
 The main factors of shell roofs are:
 The entire roof is a structural element

 Basic strength is inherent in its geometrical shape and form
 Comparatively less material is required than other forms of roof
structure
 Advantages:
 The curved shapes are naturally strong structures
 Allow wide areas to be spanned
 No use of internal supports
 Gives an open and unobstructed space
 Ideally suited for architectural applications
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2.3. Curved Roofs
2.3.1 Shells
 A shell is structural curved skin covering a given plan shape and
area where the forces in the shell or membrane are compressive and
in the restraining edge beams are tensile.
 The main factors of shell roofs are:
 The entire roof is a structural element

 Basic strength is inherent in its geometrical shape and form
 Comparatively less material is required than other forms of roof
structure
 Advantages:
 The curved shapes are naturally strong structures
 Allow wide areas to be spanned
 No use of internal supports
 Gives an open and unobstructed space
 Ideally suited for architectural applications
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Types of shell structures
folded plates Z shell The lazy S
Barrel shells Short shells Hyperbolic parabolic
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Shell structures
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2.3.2. DOMES
 Domes are double curvature shells which can be rotationally formed
by any curved geometrical plane figure rotating about a central

vertical axis.
 These are shells curved in two directions. They are one of the oldest
types of construction.
 Advantages:
 They are completely span-free
 Have high ratio of thickness to span
 Aesthetically very pleasing
 Virtually any size and number of openings are possible
 excellent for athletic facilities, schools, auditoriums, churches,
convention halls, museums etc.
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Types of dome structures
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Dome structures
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Shell and Dome Roofs
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CONTENTS
 Introduction
 Plastering
 Pointing
 White washing
 Color washing
 Paints and painting
 Varnish and varnishing
 Distemper and Distempering
 Miscellaneous finish
 External Finish
1. INTRODUCTION
 Building finishes are used:
To give protective coating to the surface which preserves and
protects the materials used in building from weather effects such
has rain water, heat, frost, etc.
To provide decorative finishes which add to the appearance of
the material surfaces and building as a whole.
 Types of building finish:
 Plastering,
 pointing,
 white washing and color washing,
 painting,
 varnishing, and
 distempering
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1. INTRODUCTION
SELECTION OF FINISHING TYPE
 In making the decision for the selection of a suitable finish, its
specifications and color, the following major factors need to be

considered.
 The appearance required,
 The maintenance necessary for giving the satisfactory
appearance,
 The degree of protection against rain penetration to be
provided by the finish,
 The severity of exposure to atmospheric and climatic
agencies affecting durability,
 The time of year during which the finish is applied,
 The background materials on which the finish is to be
applied, and
 The cost.
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2. PLASTERING
2.1 INTRODUCTION
 Plastering is the process of covering various surfaces of
structure with a plastic material such as cement mortar, lime

mortar or composite mortar, etc. to obtain an even, smooth,
regular, clean and durable surface.
 Purpose of Plastering:
Conceals inferior quality materials and defective workmanship,

Provides a protective coating against atmospheric effects
Provides a base or receiving other decorative finishes
 Tools - Laying trowel, float, floating rule and gauging trowel
2.2 PLASTERING MATERIALS:

 Binders - hydrated lime, gypsum or Portland cement
 Sand - used also to reduce shrinkage of binders, and should be free
from organic matters and silt.
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2. PLASTERING
2.3 BACK GROUND FOR PLASTERING
 The durability of plastering depends not only on the properties of the
mixture itself but also its adhesion with the background.
 A good background must be plain enough for suitable application of
plaster and should have enough strength.
 The usual types of backgrounds that are used for plaster work are:
A. Solid background: For instance brick work, concrete blocks,
heavy clay blocks , etc.
B. Lathing: These include wood laths, expanded metal lathing ,
wire meshes etc.,
C. Boards and slabs in non-mortar construction: E.g. slabs of
gypsum plaster, fiberboards, etc.
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2. PLASTERING
2.4 REQUIREMENTS FOR GOOD PLASTERING
 Some requirements of a good plaster are:
i. It should provide a smooth, non-absorbent and washable

surface.
ii. It should not contract in volume while drying and setting
otherwise it will crack and give an unsightly appearance.
iii. It should adhere firmly to the surface and resist the effects of
weather agencies such as rain, heat, etc.
iv. It should offer good insulation against sound and high
resistance against fire.
v. It should provide the surface with the required decorative effect
and durability.
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2. PLASTERING
2.5 DEFECTS IN PLASTERING
 Some of the defects in plastered work include cracking, blistering,
efflorescence and falling out of plaster.
A. Cracking in plastering
 The major causes of cracking in plastering can be:
i. Structural defects in building and discontinuity of surface,

ii. Plastering on very wet background,
iii. Old surface not being properly prepared,
iv. Movement in the background due to thermal expansion or rapid
drying of backing surface,
v. Movements in the plaster itself, due to expansion as in the case of
gypsum plaster or due to shrinkage of plasters coat during, drying
as in the case of lime-sand plasters,
vi. Excessive shrinkage of the plaster due to thick coat,
vii. Due to faulty workmanship or method of application.
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2. PLASTERING
B. Blistering or blowing of plaster
 This consists of formation of one or more swelling in small patches
over the finished plastered surfaces.
 It is caused due to faulty slaking of lime particles in the plaster after
its application.
C. Falling out of plaster

 Some portion of the surface comes off (peeling) due to:
 Lack of adhesion,
 Excessive moisture in the background,
 Excessive thermal changes in the background,
 Rapid drying of plaster coats,
 Insufficient drying between each coat of plaster.
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2. PLASTERING
D. Efflorescence
 Efflorescence is the whitish crystalline substance, which
appears on the surface of walls due to the presence of salts in

the lime, cements, and bricks and sometimes even in water.
 Efflorescence can be rectified or checked by the following measures.
i. By scrubbing with brushes. It can also be removed by
applying a solution of 1:5 HC:H2O or H2SO4 and spraying
with clean water,
ii. By using burnt bricks and clean water, which is free from salt,
iii. Using a mortar, which is waterproof, is also useful in
preventing efflorescence.
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2. PLASTERING
E. Faulty workmanship
 The following points can be cited as major workmanship error in
plastering:
i. Excessive trawling may cause the binder to come to the
surface,
ii. The interval between successive application may be short,
iii. The coats may have been too thick,
iv. Addition of water to hydraulic lime after initial set has taken
place may prove to be harmful.
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3. POINTING
 Pointing is the process of finishing of mortar joints in exposed brick
or stone masonry.
 Pointing consists of raking out the green mortar in the joint to a
depth of about 15mm and then refilling the joint with fresh
mortar.
 Pointing gives good appearance and water resistance.
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3. POINTING
Types of pointing finishes
Typical pointing profile
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4. WHITE WASHING
Process of white washing :
Preparation of white wash - Preparation of Surface - Application of
white wash
Preparation of White Wash
 White wash is prepared from fresh burnt shell lime or pure lime stone
mixed with water.

 Fresh lime is slaked – For two days – Attains consistency of thin
cream – Screening - Clean gum dissolved in hot water is added –

White wash – Additives for glaring effect
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4. WHITE WASHING
Preparation of Surface
 Surface – shall be clean, made free from loose materials
 If surface to be coated is extra smooth – then rub by sand paper for
adhesion
 Re – whiting – scales shall be scrapped off, holes, irregularities,
minor repair shall be made
Application of white wash
 Apply white wash in specified coats with a jute brush
 Usually three coats for new and one to two for old works
5. COLOR WASHING
A color wash is usually prepared by adding the necessary coloring
pigments in suitable quantifies to the screened whitewash or liquid
mixture or whitewash.
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6. PAINTS AND PAINTING
 Paints are coating of fluid materials, which are applied as a final
finish to all surfaces such as walls, ceilings, woodwork, metalwork,
etc.
 The process of application of paint as a coating is termed as
painting.
OBJECTS OF PAINTING
 The objects of painting can be summarized as to:
 Protect the surface from weathering effects of the atmosphere,
 Protect the decay of wood and corrosion of metals,
 Provide a decorative finish to obtain a clean, colorful and
pleasing surface.
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CHARACTERISTIC OF A GOOD PAINT
 A good paint should have such a consistency that it can be
applied easily and freely on the surface with a brush or spray,
 a good paint should be in initial cost and prove economical in
the long run,
 The paint color should neither fade nor change by
atmospheric influences in its designed service life, and
 should not show any signs such as brush marks, shrinkage
marks, cracks, patches, etc. on drying.
TYPES OF PAINT
 Aluminum paint  Cement paint
 Anti corrosive paint  Oil paint
 Asbestos paint  Plastic paint
 Bituminous and tar paint  Synthetic rubber paint
 Cellulose paint  Cellulose paint
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Defects in painting work
 Some of the usual defects in paining works are:
A. Blistering: This defect occurs by formation of bubbles under the

paint film. It is generally caused due to excess of oil in final coat
and imperfect seasoning of timber.
B. Crawling: This occurs due to application of too thick coat. It can be
rectified by sandpapering the surface.
C. Grinning: This is clear reflection of the background due to lack of
opacity of final coat of paint.
D. Fading: This is the loss of paint color due to the effect of sunlight
on pigments of paint.
E. Flashing: This is appearance or reflection of glossy patches on the
painted surface due to either workmanship or cheap paint used or
due to weather effect.
F. Saponification: This is the chemical formation of soap patches on
the painted surface due to chemical action of alkalis.
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7. VARNISH AND VARNISHING
 Varnish is a solution of resinous substance in oil, turpentine or
alcohol.
 The varnish solution on drying or evaporation forms or leaves a
hard, transparent and glossy film of resin on the varnish surface.
 Varnishing is the process of applying varnish to the wooden surfaces
and also to the painted surface in order to improve their appearance
and protect them from atmospheric action.
 The objects of varnishing are to:
 Brighten the ornamental appearance of the grains of the unpainted
wood surfaces,
 Protect the structural wooden surfaces from atmospheric action,
 Give brilliancy to the painted surface and also to papered walls
and
 Protect the painted surface from atmospheric actions in order to
increase the durability of the paint film.
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7. VARNISH AND VARNISHING
REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD VARNISH
 A good varnish should have the following characteristics or qualities:

i. It should dry rapidly or quickly.
ii. On drying, it should form a protective film, which should be
hard, tough, resistance to wear or durable.
iii. It should exhibit a glassy surface.
iv. The finished surface should be uniform in nature and pleasing
in appearance.
v. The color of the varnish should not fade or change when
exposed to atmospheric action.
vi. It should not crack in drying and should have sufficient
elasticity.
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8. DISTEMPER AND DISTEMPERING
 Distempering is the process of applying distempers over the various
surfaces more easily and with less cost than paints and varnishes, to
safeguard them against weather effects and improve their appearance.
 Distempers are considered to water paints, consisting of whiting (i.e.
powdered chalk), glue or casein as a binder, and suitable proportion
of coloring pigments if desired.
 Distempers form a cheap, durable and easily applied decoration for
internal use on plastered, cement concrete and various wall board
surfaces.
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9. MISCELLANEOUS FINISH
I. Wall tilling: It is the process of lining or finishing the walls with
special tiles either for height varying from 60 to 120 cm above the
floor level or up to the ceiling.
II. Papering: It is the process of pasting the papers on the walls and
ceilings for improving the aesthetic values of the interior of rooms.
III. Whitening: It is the process of whitening the walls and ceilings by
a mixture of white fine powder, glue and water.
IV. Coal tarring: it is the process of applying the coating of local tar
to woodwork or iron work for preserving them.
V. Wax-polishing: It is done on varnished surface to improve their
elegance and also to protect the under coats.
VI. Wood oiling: It is normally used as a substitute for paining on
woodwork not exposed to weather,
VII. Glazing: It is the work of fixing panels of glass in window, door
and other frames.
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10. OTHER EXTERNAL FINISH
 The following external finishes are considered to be important in the
application of various finishing qualities.
 Pebble-dash or dry-dash: This is the finish in which small pebbles
or crushed stone of suitable sizes are thrown on to a freshly applied
final coat of mortar and left exposed.
 Rough cast: This is a finish in which the final coat containing a
proposition of fairly coarse aggregate is thrown as a wet mix and is
left in a wet condition.
 Scarped finishes: In this type of finishes the final coat of mortar,
after being leveled and allowed to stiffen, is scraped with a steel
straight edge so as to give a rough surface.
 Textured finishes: with the aid of suitable tools, ribbed stucco or fun
textures can be created in the final coat.
 Smooth finish: this type of finish has got a level and a smooth
surface. The wooden float normally used as a steel float, gives surface
much more liable to craze.
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10. OTHER EXTERNAL FINISH
 Machine applied finishes: A variety of finishes in which the final
coat is applied by machine, which throws or spatters the material
on the wall.
 Board marked concrete: A variety of surface textures and overall
patterned effects can be achieved by casting concrete against
suitably prepared rough sawn boards.
 Exposed aggregate concrete finishes: Removal of the cement-
Sand mortar from the surface of concrete to reveal the underling
coarse aggregate produces a durable textured finishes.
 Tooled concrete finishes: By tooling hardened concrete, the outer
surface is broken away to leave a rough textured durable finishes.
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CONTENTS
 Introduction
 Requirements of a good formwork
 Materials for formwork
 Factors affecting selection of formwork
 Construction of formwork
 Formwork striking
 Releasing agent
 Formwork design principle
 Failure of formwork
 Scaffolds and false works
1. INTRODUCTION
 Formwork, sometimes known as shuttering or casing, is the
boarding or sheeting which is erected to contain and mould the wet
concrete during placing and the initial hardening period.
 Formwork is a temporary structure that is required to support and
form concrete members.
 False work is the complete structure erected to support the wet
concrete.
 In most of the project formwork activity accounts for 30% to 60%
of the cost of the concrete skeleton and extends 40% to 60% of the
total project duration.
 Proper selection of formwork has greater influence:
 On reducing materials and labor cost,
 Improving the quality of the produced concrete and
 Saving time leading to smooth running of the projects.
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1. INTRODUCTION
 BREAK UP OF DIFFERENT TRADES OF WORK
TYPE OF WORK PERCENTAGE
Piling work 1.9%
Earth work 2.7%
Concrete work 2.3%
Water proofing 6.8%
RCC work 58.7%
Brick Work 4.3%
Wood Work 0.6%
Steel Work 1.1%
Flooring Work 14.9%
Roofing 1.5%
Finishing 3.3%
Road Work 0.7%
Boundary Wall 0.2%
Miscellaneous 1.0%
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1. INTRODUCTION
 BREAK UP OF DIFFERENT FORMWORK ITEMS
Formwork item Percentage
For rafts, pile caps, bases of columns etc 2.1%
Walls 25.5%
Columns, pillars, posts and struts 1.6%
Lintels, beams, girders 6.0%
Suspended floors, roofs, landing and balconies 21.9%
Chajjas 2.1%
Staircases 1.2%
Arches, domes, vaults 0.3%
Vertical and horizontal fins 6.6%
Ribs in RCC slabs 31.2%
Extra for circular work 1.5%
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1. INTRODUCTION
 TYPICAL COST BREAKDOWN OF CONCRETE SLABS
86
2. REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD FORMWORK
BASIC OBJECTIVES
i. Quality
 Desired size, shape and finish of the concrete is achieved.
ii. Safety
 Capable of supporting all dead and live loads without
collapsing or danger to workmen and to the concrete structure.

iii. Economy
 Efficient, saving time and money for contractor and owner
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 A good formwork should satisfy the following:
i. it should be strong enough to withstand all types of dead and
live loads such as:
• Self weight,
• Weight of reinforcement,
• Weight of wet concrete,
• Loads due to workmen,
• Construction equipment,
• Other incidental loads and forces caused by placement and
consolidation of concrete imposed upon it during and after
casting of concrete.
ii. It should be rigidly constructed and efficiently propped and braced
both horizontally and vertically so as to retain its shape without
undue deflection.
88
iii. The joints in the formwork should be tight against leakage of
cement grout.
iv. It should be constructed in such a manner that it may permit the
removal of various parts in desired sequence without damaging
the concrete.
v. The material of the formwork should be cheap, easily available
and should be suitable for reuse several times.
vi. It should be set accurately to the desired line and levels and
should have plain surfaces.
vii. It should be as light as possible.
viii. The material of formwork should not warp or get distorted when
exposed to sun, rain or water during concreting.
ix. All joints of the formwork should be stiff so that lateral
deformation under loads is minimum. Also the joints should be
leak proof.
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 A good formwork should satisfy the following:
 Containment;
 Strength ;
 Rigidity;
 Tightness;
 Good alignment;
 Surface finish;
 Durability;
 Resistance to leakage;
 Accuracy;
 Ease of handling;
 Finish and re-use potential;
 Access for concrete;
 Economy, and
 Ease of stripping and economy.
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3. MATERIALS FOR FORMWORK
 Formwork can be mainly made up of
 Timber,
 Plywood,
 Steel
 Aluminium
 Precast concrete or fibreglass, used separately or in
combination.
TIMBER FORMWORK
 The timber used for the formwork should satisfy the following
requirements:
 It should be well seasoned,
 It should be light in weight,
 It should be easily workable with nails without splitting, and
 It should be free from knots.
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TIMBER FORMWORK
 Timber used for shuttering exposed concrete work should have
smooth and even surface on all faces, which are to come in contact
with concrete.
 In situations where concrete surfaces are not exposed, as in the case
of foundations, undressed timber can be used to reduce cost.

PLYWOOD FORMWORK
 Use of plywood instead of timber planks is getting popular these
days.
 Resin bonded plywood sheets are attached to timber frames to make
up panels of required sizes.

 Ensures quality surface finish and is especially recommended in
works where large exposed areas of the concrete are to be

constructed such as floor slab, faces of retaining walls, etc.
 Generally, the number of reuses of plywood formwork is more as
compared with timber shuttering.

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STEEL FORMWORK
 This consists of panels fabricated out thin steel angles.
 The panels can be fabricated in large numbers in any desired
modular shape or size.

 Although steel shuttering costs more initially, it may work out to be
economical in the long run due to its large number of reuses of the
same shuttering.
 The advantage of steel formwork over timber formwork include:
i. It is stronger, more durable and have longer life as compared with
timber forms
ii. It can be put to sufficient large number of reuses, as high as 100
cycles.
iii. It can be installed and dismantled with greater ease and speed.
iv. The quality of exposed concrete surface obtained by use of steel
form is excellent and most of the time it need no further treatment.
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STEEL FORMWORK
v. There is no danger of the formwork absorbing water from the
concrete and hence the chances honey combing are minimised.
vi. They are not liable to shrink or distort an hence it is possible to
achieve better workmanship and higher accuracy by use of steel
forms.
ALUMINIUM FORMWORK
 Enables the walls and slab to be placed monolithically in the same
operation
 Consistent concrete shapes and finishes are obtained
 The smooth finish of the concrete greatly reduces or eliminates the
need for costly plastering.
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4. FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF FORMWORK
 Formwork for building nearly account for 25% of RCC work.
 Selection of formwork material to be used should be based on
maximum economy to the contractor consistent with safety and
quality required in the finished work.
 Proper selection of formwork has greater influence:
 On reducing materials and labor cost,
 Improving the quality of the produced concrete and
 Saving time leading to smooth running of the projects.
 Factors to be considered at the time of selection :
 Strength
 Economic use
 Ease of handling, erection and dismantling
 Ability to form the desired shape
 Concrete quality and finish required
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 For a given set of circumstances and as a result of certain specific
requirements each material may have some particular attribute that
will resolve a particular constructional problem on a work
DECISION MAKING PRINCIPLES
i. Knowledge base evaluation
 Factors considered
 Type of finish
 Re-use for good finish
 Re-use for rough finish
 Formwork component applied
 Shuttering shapes
 Likely concrete defects
 Area practice
 Where fabricatable
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 Noise produced
 Fire resistance
 Liability of shuttering damage
 Formwork repairs
 Ease of making openings
 Insulation properties
ii. Project data
 Contract Specialty
 Contract type
 Contract conditions
 Project duration
 Type of concrete finish
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 Building Specialty
 Building type ( commercial, residential, industrial)
 Structural systems and details
 Building scale (shape, length, width, height and no. of floors)
 Building area(total, floor-wise and phase-wise)
 Site Specialty
 Access to site
 Site size
 Site surroundings and its relationships
 Space for formwork fabrications
 Contractor Specialty
 Contractor’s experience with different formwork systems
 Formwork available with contractor
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 Construction Specialty
 Labor available and productivity
 Construction equipments used and frequency of use
 Construction sequence/ program
 Site Specialty
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s. Formwork Surface finish Re-use Re-use for Formwork Shuttering Likely Area Where
No. material for good rough finish component shapes concrete Practice Fabricatab
finish applied defects le
1 Timber Normal/ plain 1 to 2 10 to 12 Sheeting, Flat Uneven yes site/offsite

finish shutter frame surfaces
props
2 Plywood High class/fine 2 to 4 20 to 25 Sheeting Flat/ Ply pieces yes site/offsite

finish reasonably sticking to
curved concrete
3 Steel High class/fine 45 to 50 100 to 200 Sheeting, Any Blowholes yes offsite
finish shutter frame
props,
accessories
4 Fibre glass High class/fine 85 to 120 to 150 sheeting Any Blowholes yes Offsite
finish 100
5 Concrete High class/fine 1 - sheeting Any Edges chip yes site/offsite

finish off
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0
s. Formwork Surface finish Re-use for Re-use Formwork Shuttering Likely Area Where
No. material good for rough component shapes concrete Practice Fabricatab
finish finish applied defects le
6 Polypropyle High 100 - 120 150 to sheeting Any Blowholes No Offsite

ne class/fine 180
finish
7 Hardboard Rough/basic 1 to 2 2 To 10 sheeting Flat to Hardboard Rarely site/offsite

finish slightly pieces sticking
curved to concrete
8 Polystyrene High 1 - sheeting Generally Sticking to Occasionally site/offsite

class/fine flat/ curve concrete
finish possible
9 Rubber High 10 to 12 15 to 20 sheeting Any Poor rubber No Offsite

class/superfin may differ
e finish shape of
concrete
10 Plaster of High 1 - sheeting Any Give uneven Rarely Offsite

Paris class/superfin concrete
e finish surface finish
if it cracks
11 Aluminum High 20 to 40 80 to 100 Sheeting, Any Alkali in conc. Occasionally Offsite

class/fine shutter can react to Al,
finish frame props if moisture
present
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1
5. CONSTRUCTION OF FORMWORK
 The construction of formwork normally involves the following
operations
i. Propping and centring
 The props used for centring may be of steel or timber plates.
 In case of wooden posts are used as props, they should rest
squarely on wooden sole plates.

 The wooden plates should have an area of at least 0.1m2 and
40mm thickness.
ii. Shuttering
 The shuttering can be made up of timber planks, or it may be in
the form of panel unit made by either by fixing plywood to

timber frames or by welding steel plates to angle framing.
 The shuttering joints should be tight against leakage of cement
grout.
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2
iii. Provision of camber and cleaning
 it is desirable to give an upward camber in the horizontal member
of the concrete structure, especially in members having long span,

to counteract the effect of deflection.
 The provision of desired camber should be in the formwork itself
during its erection.

iv. Surface treatment
 The shuttering can be made up of timber planks, or it may be in
the form of panel unit made by either by fixing plywood to timber

frames or by welding steel plates to angle framing.
 Before laying concrete the formwork should be cleaned of all
rubbish particles.
 All surface of timber shuttering that are to come in contact with
concrete should be well wetted with water.

 All surface of shuttering should be given a good coating of a
releasing agent.
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3
FORMWORK FOR FOUNDATION
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4
FORMWORK FOR COLUMNS
 Columns are usually square or circular in section.
 The shuttering must be able to withstand the hydraulic pressure
exerted on it by the poured concrete.

 For this reason, the column shutter supports near the base of the
form should be closer.
 To prevent segregation of the concrete when pouring high columns,
it may be necessary to incorporate a trap door in the shuttering at

approximately the midpoint in height of the column, thereby
allowing concrete to be placed without it dropping full height.
 The alternative is pour the concrete from the top of the form
using a termite pipe.
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5
10
6
10
7
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8
FORMWORK FOR BEAMS
 this is basically a three sided box supported and propped in the
correct position and to the desired level.

 The beam formwork sides have to retain the wet concrete in the
required shape and be able to withstand the initial hydrostatic

pressure of the wet concrete,
 Whereas the formwork soffit apart from retaining the concrete has
to support the initial load of the wet concrete and finally the set
concrete until it has gained sufficient strength to be self supporting.
 It is essential that all joints in the formwork are constructed to
prevent the escape of grout which could result in honeycombing

and/or feather edging in the cast beam.
 The design of the shuttering should allow the slab and beam side
forms to be removed while the beam soffit remains supported.
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9
FORMWORK FOR BEAMS
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FORMWORK FOR BEAMS
Beam and slab formwork
11
1
FORMWORK FOR SLABS
 Formwork to suspended slabs is similar to that for beams, except
that the soffit shuttering is far wider.
11
2
FORMWORK FOR WALLS
 This type of form work consists of timber sheeting supported by
vertical studs or posts and horizontal struts or walls.
11
3
FORMWORK FOR STAIRS
 The landing is first set in position. The process for constructing the
landing is the same as that of floors.

 After the landing has been set, the flight will be constructed.
11
4
6. FORMWORK STRIKING
 Removal of formwork is also important as erecting it.
 Before formwork can be removed the concrete must have sufficient:
 Strength to support itself

 Surface hardness to resist damage
 Curing.
FACTORS AFFECTING FORMWORK STRIKING
 Ambient Temperature
 Layout of concrete viz. horizontal, vertical or inclined
 Type of cement used
 Grade of concrete
 Use of retarders, plasticizers, etc.
 Feasibility of removal with props left under
 Feasibility with re-propping
 Standards of finish required
 Structural configuration e.g. simply supported or cantilever
 Curing procedures adopted
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5
 Factors to be considered in producing required concrete finishes of
uniform color and texture
 The right concrete mix
 Consistency of the concrete
 Use of a constant rate of placing
 Uniformity of compaction
 Uniformity of face contact material
 Correct choice of formwork pre-treatment and release
agents
 Correct curing procedures
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6
FORMWORK STRIPPING PERIODS
OPC CONCRETE (FROM BS 8110) OPC CONCRETE (FROM EBCS 1995)
Surface temperature Stripping time

of concrete
Formwork for 18 hours
70 C 160 C and columns, walls
above
Soffit formwork to 7days
Formwork for 18 hours 12 hours slabs
columns, walls
Props to slabs 14days
Soffit formwork 6 days 4 days
to slabs Soffit formwork 14days
for beams
Soffit formwork 15 days 10 days
to beams and Props to beams 21days
props to slabs
Props to beams 21 days 14 days
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7
METHOD OF REMOVING FORMWORK
 Formwork should be planned and constructed in such a manner that
it is possible to remove the different components in the following

order of sequence:
i. Shuttering forming vertical faces of walls, of beams and
columns sides, which bear no load but are used only to retain
the concrete, should be removed first.
ii. Shuttering forming soffit of slabs should be removed next,
and
iii. Shuttering forming soffit of beams, girders or other heavily
loaded shuttering should be removed in the end.
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8
7. FORMWORK ECONOMY
 Formwork is the single largest component of concrete building.
 Considering the impact of formwork on the total cost, the engineer
should design the formwork so that the maximum economy can be
obtained.
 Economy of formwork begins with the design development of the
structure itself.
 The following point should be considered while designing
formwork for a building structure.
i. While designing the structure, consider the material and tools
that will be required to make, erect, and remove the formwork.
ii. Design the structure with standard dimensions that will be unit
multiple of forms and centering sheets.
iii. Use the same size of columns from the foundation to the roof,
this will permit the use of column forms with out alteration.
11
9
7. FORMWORK ECONOMY
iv. Use beams of the same depth and spacing in every floor; this
will permit the reuse of beam forms without alteration.
v. Specify the same for columns and column-support girders in
order to reduce or eliminate the cutting and fitting of girder
forms into column forms.
 Some of the important points to achieve economy in formwork
expenditure are as follows:
i. While designing formwork, maximum usage of material should
be achieved.
ii. High quality finish on concrete surface is not required for sides
that will not be exposed.
iii. When planning forms, consider the sequence and methods of
striping.
iv. Use prefabricated panels wherever possible.
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0
7. FORMWORK ECONOMY
v. Strip forms as soon as it is safe in order to facilitate maximum
reuse of forms.
vi. Create cost awareness among carpenters and other workers
involved in formwork construction.
vii. Use long length timber or plywood with out cutting, where
their extending beyond the working area is not objectionable.
viii. After removal clean panels and store them at a safe place so
that they can be reused.
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1
8. RELEASING AGENT
 Facilitate the striking or removal of the formwork.
 Prevent the concrete adhering to the form face.
 Most oils will fulfill the function of a release agent, but different
oils can produce blow holes or variations in the color of concrete,
affect efflorescence, or retard the hardening of the surface.
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2
9. FORMWORK DESIGN PRINCIPLES
 The person designing the formwork for a project is doing much
more than planning the containers with in which the in situ concrete
will be cast.
 Formwork design includes
 design of the formwork support structure,
 the formwork deck and connection details.
 The design of formwork will involve decisions on the location of
construction joints, which may impinge on reinforcement detailing,
and will certainly relate to the volume of concrete to be placed in
one pour.
 It will also be necessary for the designer to take into account the
skills available, both quantitatively and qualitatively, for fabricating
and handling the formwork.
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3
LOADS ON FORMWORK
 Wind loading
 Vertical elements must be fully braced

 Wind loading will vary depending on:
 size of form;
 nature of the form;
 wind speed;
 wind direction.
 Concrete Loading
 The force exerted by concrete is complex, because concrete

starts off acting as though it were a fluid
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4
LOADS ON FORMWORK
Fluid pressures on forms Pressures reduced by stiffening
12
5
FACTORS AFFECTING PRESSURE
 Concrete density,
 Rate of rise,
 Height of section cast,
 Concrete temperature,
 Cement type, admixtures, latent hydraulic binders and shape
and plan area of the section.
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6
10. FAILURE OF FORMWORK
 The failure of formwork is always embarrassing and expensive for
everyone involved in the project.
 Failure may be collapse of entire formwork or part of it.
 Some of the reasons for the failure of formwork are given below:
a) Improper or inadequate shoring
b) Inadequate bracing of members
c) Lack of control of placement of concrete
d) Improper connection
e) Premature striping of formwork
f) Improper design
g) Failure to follow codes and standards
h) Negligence of workers or supervisors
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7
10. FAILURE OF FORMWORK
 In order to prevent failure of formwork the following precautions
should be taken:
i. The formwork should be designed properly
ii. Erection and stripping should be done only under engineering
supervision
iii. The sequence of removal should be pre-designed and correctly
executed.
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8
11. SCAFFOLDS AND FALSE WORKS
 Where work cannot safely be done on or from the ground or from
part of a building or other permanent structure, a safe and suitable
scaffold shall be provided and maintained or other equally safe and
suitable provisions should be made.
 It is essential that scaffolds should be provided with safe means of
access, such as stairs, ladders or ramps.

MATERIAL
 In the construction of scaffolds, sufficient, suitable and sound
materials should be used.

 Where timber is used in the construction of scaffolds, it should be
straight grained, sound, and free from large knots, worm holes and
other defects likely to affect its strength.
 The mechanical properties of fastening on wooden scaffolds should
conform to the national regulations and code of practices or be

approved by the concerned authority.
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9
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE
 Scaffolds should be inspected at periodic intervals as prescribed by
national standards or code of practices, and the results recorded y a

competent person.
 Inspection by the competent person should more particularly
ascertain that:
i. The scaffold is of suitable type and adequate for the job,
ii. Materials used in its construction are sound and of
sufficient strength,
iii. It is of sound construction and stable, and
iv. That the required safeguards are in position.
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CONTENTS
 Introduction
 Terminologies
 Types of fire-places
 Function and components of a chimney
 Typical fire-place dimensions
 Materials for chimney and fire-place construction
1. INTRODUCTION
 A fireplace is an architectural structure that contain a fire for heating.
 A fire is contained in a firebox or firepit; a chimney or other flue
directs gas and particulate exhaust to escape.
 A fire place is a framed opening in a chimney to hold an open fire. It
must be designed and constructed to:
 Sustain the combustion of fuel.
 Draw properly to carry smoke and other combustive by-products to
the outside.
 Radiate the maximum amount of heat comfortably in to the room.
 Ensure proper distances from combustible materials.
 The dimension and proportion of a fireplace, its flue and the
arrangement of its components are subject to
 The laws of nature,
 The requirement of the building, and
 The prevalent building codes.
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4
1. INTRODUCTION
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5
2. TERMINOLOGIES
 The following terminologies are used in connection with chimneys
and fire places
a) Chimney flue: this is a shaft, which carries gases from a fire
place through the building to the atmosphere.
 Normally this flue is not less than 400cm2 in sectional area
and is constructed in brickwork or stone masonry.
b) Chimney back: this term applies to the back of a fire place
opening.
c) Chimney jambs: these are the vertical sides of a fireplace
opening.
d) Chimney bar: this is a metallic bar, which ties the jambs of
chimney together.
e) Chimney cowl: this is a cap or fitting to a chimney and promotes
an upward draught in the chimney.
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2. TERMINOLOGIES
f) Chimney breast: this is the opening of chimney or fire place
projecting outside the wall face.
g) Chimney gutter: this is suitably shaped piece of metal, which
collects and diverts water which otherwise would penetrate the
roof at the back of the chimney stack.
h) Chimney lining: this is the rendering on the inner side of a flue,
may be of special fire proof material.
i) Chimney piece or mantle piece: this is an ornamental
surrounding to a fire place.
j) Chimney pot: this is a terracotta unit at the top of a chimney
stack. It increases the height and prevents down draught.
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7
2. TERMINOLOGIES
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8
3. TYPES OF FIRE PLACES
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9
4. FUNCTION AND COMPONENTS OF A
CHIMNEY
 When chimneys, fireplaces and flues are constructed as an integral
part of the structure, they have to fulfill the same requirements as the
wall in which they are incorporated.
 They must fulfill the requirements of weather exclusion, thermal
insulation, sound insulation and fire protection, at least to the same
degree as the wall or the partition of which they form a part.
 The major components of a chimney include the foundation,
chimney breast, flues and chimney stacks.
A. Foundations:
 The foundation of a chimney shall be properly designed and
should be at least as deep as the adjacent walls.
 The chimney should be properly bonded to the wall and it will
sometimes be necessary to make special calculations for strength
and stability of the chimney.
 The chimney is often wider than the wall and thus it will be
necessary to make the foundations larger.
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CHIMNEY
A. Foundations:
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1
CHIMNEY
B. Chimney breast:
 A fire place generally needs greater depth than the thickness of a
wall. Hence the chimney is accommodated in the chimney breast.
 This projection can be avoided if chimney is provided in external
walls where the projection can be provided on the outer side.
 The fire place opening will depend on the size of the room or the
type of fireplace.
 The smallest room may need a fireplace opening of 50cm width.
C. Flues:
 The purpose of the flue from a fireplace is to provide an outlet for
the products of combustion and also to include the airflow through
the fire necessary for the burning of the fuel.
 It commonly draws air from the room in which the fire is situated,
there by inducing ventilation.
 All open fire depend on the suction developed by the flue to
provide sufficient air for combustion.
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CHIMNEY
B. Flues:
 The suction exerted by the flue depends on the difference in
pressure b/n the column of warm gas it contains and the column of
cool air of equal height.
 The taller the flue the higher the temperature of the flue gas and
the greater will be the velocity in the flue.
 The amount of ventilation induced in a room is greatly influenced
by the volume of air drawn up the flue.
 The greater the air change, the greater will be heat loss and thus
care should be taken in designing flue sizes depending on room
sizes.
 Flues have a minimum size of 20cm by 20cm and should be
uniform in section through out their height. However a throating
i.e. Reduced opening may be made at the end.
 The inside of a flue is plastered or rendered with mortar to prevent
escape of flame or smoke through cracks or open joints.
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CHIMNEY
B. Flues:
 The materials used for the flues must be incombustible and
durable.
 Special circular, rectangular, or square fire clay flue linings may be
available.
A- cool air enters

B- the cool air is heated and
released
C- Smoke is released
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CHIMNEY
C. Flues:
 Chimneys whose outlets are in high pressure areas will be more
likely to give rise to down draught and smokiness at the
appliances.
 When flue is designed to be on internal wall, two advantages can
be obtained
a) Heat loss to the outside air is avoided and it will contribute
towards warming the rooms; and
b) The heat loss will be less and the flue gas temperature will
be maintained, consequently improving the flow and
reducing the risk of down draught.
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CHIMNEY
B. Flues:
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6
4. FUNCTION AND COMPONENTS OF A CHIMNEY
D. Chimney stacks:
 The chimney breasts are reduced in width when
they penetrate above the roofs.
 According to many countries building codes, the
chimney stacks must be carried up to a height of
at least 1m above the highest point of the
adjoining roof.
 To prevent down draught, the chimney stack is
generally taken at least one meter above the
ridge.
 Special considerations should be given to prevent
the rain water coming down the walls.
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5. TYPICAL FIRE-PLACE DIMENSIONS
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8
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5. MATERIALS FOR CHIMNEY AND FIRE-PLACE CONSTRUCTION
 The major building materials used for the construction of chimneys

and fire places include bricks, concrete, masonry stones, and some
metals.
A. Brick chimneys:
 Brick is the traditional material used for building chimneys.
 The height of unsupported brick stack or shaft should not
exceed six times its least horizontal dimension.
 Where the height is exceeded, the stack requires to be braced, or
the thickness calculated to withstand wind pressure.
 The application of damp proof courses are necessary at the
base of the chimneys to prevent rising dampness.
 Since brick chimneys are very heavy, care has to be taken
during the design of foundations.
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A. Brick chimneys:
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2
B. Concrete chimneys:
 Concrete chimneys are becoming more popular nowadays due to
their better appearance and economical consideration both
initially and during maintenance.
 Concrete chimneys can be formed either by using precast units or
cast in situ, or a combination of both methods.
 When reinforced concrete is used the reinforcement should have a
proper cover.
 The application of damp proof courses are necessary at the base of
the chimneys to prevent rising dampness.
C. Hollow blocks:
 Hollow clay or concrete blocks are generally unsuitable for
building flues unless the blocks are specially made for the purpose.
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3
D. Stone masonry chimneys:

 The conditions of exposure for chimney stacks above the roof,
together with the risk of condensation of the products of
combustion, limit the choice of stone.
 The temperatures normally prevailing in a domestic flue are not
sufficiently high to damage good building stone except in the
immediate vicinity of fire.
 On this situation, the stone has either to be sand stone or has to
be protected by fire brick.
 The same precautions against damp prevention have to be taken
for masonry as those taken in brick chimney.
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4
D. Stone masonry chimneys:
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5
E. Metal flues:
 The use of free-standing metal flues in buildings is restricted.
However, steel or cast-iron can be used to produce metal flues.
 Though metal chimneys are light in weight, they require careful
maintenance and large initial expenses.
 Free standing-flues of metal have to be frequently supported,
usually at every section, as recommended by the codes of practice.
 Allowance should be made for the expansion and contraction of
the pipes at the joints and at supports so that the whole stack may
move.
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6. CHIMNEY DETAILS
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7
6. CHIMNEY DETAILS
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8
6. CHIMNEY DETAILS
15
9
CONTENTS
 Introduction
 Source of dampness
 Effects of dampness
 Method of damp proofing
 Materials used for damp proofing course
1. INTRODUCTION
 One of the basic requirements of a building is that it should remain
dry or free from moisture passing through walls, roofs or floors.
 Dampness is the presence of hygroscopic or gravitational moisture.
 It leads to unhygienic conditions affecting badly the health and
comfort of the inhabitants.
 It also seriously deteriorates the stability of the building.
 Damp prevention is, therefore, one of the important items of
building design.
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2. SOURCE OF DAMPNESS
 The following causes are considered to be the main sources of
dampness in buildings
I. Moisture rising up the walls from the ground
 All the structures are founded on soils, and the substructure is
embedded into it. If the soil is pervious, moisture constantly
travels through it.
 This moisture may rise up into the wall and the floor through
capillary action.
 Ground water rise will also result in moisture entry into the
building through walls and floors.
II. Rain travel from wall tops
 If the wall tops are not properly protected from rain penetration,
rain will enter the wall and will travel down.
 Leaking roofs will also permit water to enter.
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2
III. Moisture rising up the walls from the ground
 Heavy showers of rain may beat against the external faces of walls
and if the walls are not properly treated, moisture will enter the
wall, causing dampness in the interior.
 This moisture travel would completely deface interior decoration of
the wall.
IV. Condensation
 Due to condensation of atmospheric moisture, water is deposited on
the walls, floors and ceilings. The moisture may cause dampness.
V. Miscellaneous causes
 Moisture may also enter due to the following miscellaneous
causes
 poor drainage at the building site,
 Imperfect orientation: walls getting less sunlight and heavy
showers may remain damp,
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3
 Imperfect roof slope: specially in the case of flat roofs,
 Defective construction: imperfect wall jointing, joints in
roofs, defective throating etc.,
 Absorption of water from defective rainwater pipes,
 water introduced in the building during construction,
 shrinkage of wooden frames permits an entry of rain,
 Poor material choice, e.g. use of porous bricks in chimneys.
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3. EFFECTS OF DAMPNESS
 The following are some of the ill effects of dampness in buildings:
A. Dampness gives rise to breeding of mosquitoes and crate
unhealthy living conditions.
B. Travel of moisture through walls and ceiling may cause unsightly
patches.
C. Moisture travel may cause softening and crumbling of plaster,
especially lime plaster.
D. Wall decoration (i.e. painting, etc) is damaged, which is very
difficult and costly to repair.
E. Continuous presence of moisture in the walls may cause
efflorescence resulting in disintegration of bricks, stones, tiles,
etc., and consequent reduction in strength.
F. The flooring gets loosened because of reduction in the adhesion
when moisture enters through the floor.
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3. EFFECTS OF DAMPNESS
G. Timber fittings, such as doors, windows, wardrobes, etc., coming
in contact with damp walls, damp floors, etc, get deteriorated
because of warping, buckling, dry-rotting, etc. of timber
H. Electrical fittings get deteriorated, giving rise to leakage through
electrical fittings and consequent danger of short-circuiting.
I. Floor covering are damaged. On damp floors, one cannot use
floor coverings.
J. Dampness promotes and accelerates growth of termites.
K. Dampness together with warmth and darkness breeds germs of
dangerous diseases. Occupants may even be asthmatic.
L. Moisture causes rusting and corrosion of metal fittings attached
to walls, floors and ceilings.
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4. METHOD OF DAMP PROOFING
 The following methods are used to make a building damp proof :
A. Use of damp proofing course (D.P.C): membrane damp proofing
B. Integral damp proofing
C. Surface treatment
D. Cavity wall construction
E. Guniting
F. Pressure grouting
A. Membrane damp proofing: use of D.P.C
 This consists of introducing a water repellent membrane or damp
proof course (D.P.C) between the source of dampness and the part of
building adjacent to it.
 D.P.C may consist of flexible materials such as bitumen, mastic
asphalt, bituminous felts, plastic or polyethylene sheets, metal sheets,

etc.
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7
 Damp proofing courses may be provided either horizontally or
vertically in floors, walls, etc.
 The following general principles should be kept in mind while
providing D.P.C.:
i. The D.P.C. Course should cover the full thickness of
walls, excluding rendering.
ii. The mortar bed supporting D.P.C. Should be levelled and
even, and should be free from projection, so that D.P.C. Is
not damaged.
iii. D.P.C. Should be so laid that of a continuous projection is
provided.
iv. At junction and corners of walls, the horizontal D.P.C.
Should be laid continuous.
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8
i. When a horizontal D.P.C. (i.e. That of a floor) is continued
to a vertical face, a cement concrete fillet of 7.5cm radius
should be provided at the junction.
ii. D.P.C. Should not be kept exposed on the wall surface
otherwise it may get damaged during finishing work.
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B. Integral damp proofing
 This consists of adding certain water proofing compounds of materials
to the concrete mix, so that it becomes impermeable.
 This water proofing compounds may be in either of the following
forms:
1) Compounds made from chalk, talc, fullers earth, which fill the
voids of concrete under the mechanical action principle.
2) Compounds like alkaline silicates, aluminium sulphate, calcium
chlorides, etc. Which react chemically with concrete to produce
water proof concrete.
3) Compounds, like soap, petroleum, oils, fatty acid compounds
such as stearates calcium, sodium, ammonia, etc. Work on water
repulsion principle. When these are mixed with concrete the
concrete becomes water repellent.
4) Commercially available compounds like Publo, Permo, silka, etc.
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C. Surface treatment
 The surface treatment consists of application of layer of water
repellent substances or compounds on these surfaces through which
moisture enters.
 The use of water repellent metallic soaps such as calcium and
aluminium oletes and stearates are much effective against rain water
penetration.
 It should be noted that surface treatment is effective only when the
moisture is superficial and is not under pressure.
 Sometimes, exposed stone or brick wall face may be sprayed with
water repellent solution.
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D. Cavity wall construction
 This is an effective method of damp prevention, in
which the main wall of a building is shielded by
an outer skin wall, leaving a cavity b/n the two.
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2
E. Guniting
 This consists of depositing under pressure, an impervious layer of
rich cement mortar over the exposed surfaces for water proofing or
over pipes for resisting water pressure.
 Cement mortar consists of 1:3 cement sand mix, which is shot on the
cleaned surface with the help of a cement gun, under high pressure.
 The mortar mix of desired consistency and thickness can be
deposited to get an impervious layer.
 The layer should be properly cured.
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E. Pressure grouting
 This consists of forcing cement grout, under pressure, into cracks,
voids, fissures etc. present in the structural components of the
building, or in the ground.
 This method is quite effective in checking the seepage of raised
ground water through foundations and sub-structure of a building.
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4
5. MATERIALS USED FOR DAMP PROOFING COURSE
 An ideal damp proofing material should have the following
characteristic:
1) The material should be perfectly impervious and it should not
permit any moisture penetration or travel through it.
2) The material should be durable, and should have the same life
as that of the building.
3) The material should be strong, capable of resisting
superimposed loads/pressure on it.
4) Material should be flexible, so that it can accommodate the
structural movements without any fracture.
5) The material should not be costly.
6) The material should be such that leak-proof jointing is
possible.
7) The material should remain steady in its position when once
applied. It should not allow any movement in itself.
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5
 The following materials are commonly used for damp-proofing
1. Hot bitumen
 This is a highly flexible material, which can be applied with a
minimum thickness of 3mm.
 It is placed on the bedding of concrete or mortar, while in hot
condition.
2. Mastic asphalt
 Mastic asphalt is semi rigid material which is quite durable and
completely impervious.
 It is obtained by heating asphalt with sand and mineral fillers.
However it should be laid very carefully, by experienced persons.
 It can withstand only very slight distortion. It is also liable to squeeze
out in very hot climate or under heavy pressure.
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6
3. Bituminous or asphaltic felt
 This is a flexible material which is available in rolls of various wall
thickness.
 It is laid on a levelled flat layer of cement mortar.
 An overlap of 10cm is provided at joints and full width overlap is
provided at angles, junctions and crossings. The laps should be sealed

with bitumen.
 Bituminous felts can not withstand heavy loads, though they can
accommodate slight movements.

4. Metal sheets
 Sheets of lead, copper and aluminium can be used as D.P.C. These
sheets are of flexible type.

Lead sheets
 Lead sheets are quite flexible. They are laid similar to the bituminous
felts.
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7
Lead sheets
 They have advantages of being completely impervious to moisture,
resistant to ordinary atmospheric corrosion, capability of taking
complex shapes with out fracture and resistant to sliding action.
Copper sheets
 Copper sheets of minimum 3mm thickness, are embedded in lime or
cement mortar.
 It has high durability, high resistance to dampness, high resistance to
sliding and reasonable resistance to ordinary pressure.
Aluminium sheets
 If used it should be protected with a layer of bitumen.
 It is not as good as lead or copper sheets.
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5. Combination of sheets and bituminous felts
 Lead foil sandwiched between asphaltic or bituminous felts can be
effectively used as D.P.C.
 The combination, known as lead core possesses characteristics of
easy laying, durability, efficiency, economy an resistance to cracking.
6. Bricks
 Special bricks, which have less water absorption capacity, may be
used as D.P.C. in locations where damp is not excessive.
 This bricks are laid in two to four courses in cement mortar.
7. Stones
 Dense and sound stones, such as granite, can be laid in cement
mortar (1:3) in two courses or layers to form effective D.P.C.
 The stones should extend to the full width of the wall.
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9
8. Mortar
 Cement mortar (1:3) is used as bedding layer for housing with other
D.P.C. materials.
9. Cement concrete
 Cement concrete of 1:2:4 mix or 1:1½:3 mix is generally provided at
plinth level to work as D.P.C. The thickness may vary from 4cm to 15
cm.
 Such a layer can effectively check the water rise due to capillary action.
 Where dampness is more, two coats of hot bitumen paint may be applied
on it.
10. Plastic sheets
 This relatively a new type of D.P.C. Material, made of black
polyethylene, 0.5 to 1mm thick in the usual walling width and wall
length of 30m.
 The treatment is cheaper but is not permanent.
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0
CONTENTS
 Introduction
 The problem of safety and health
 Safety and health in international and local practice
 Cause of construction site accidents
 Safety precautions
 Occupational health hazards
 Hazard control measures
 Personal protective equipments
 Accident costs
 Cost of the safety program
 Quantification of accidents
1. INTRODUCTION
 Health and safety are the responsibility of everyone at work.
 Construction industry, in general, is comparatively less organized
and involves participation of major percentage of unskilled labor as
compared to other industrial sectors.
 As a major employment generator in many parts of the world,
construction is also a sector associated with a proportionately high
number of job-related accidents and diseases.
 Despite mechanization, the industry is still largely labor-intensive,
while working environments are frequently changing and involve
many different parties.
 It is of particular importance to the construction industry, where it is
one of the major employers of the work force in Ethiopia.
 Statistics indicate that injuries and death due to construction related
accidents are increasing.
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1. INTRODUCTION
 According to ILO estimates:
 Each year there are at least 60,000 fatal accidents on
construction sites around the world.
 In many industrialized countries, as many as 25% to 40% of
work-related deaths are occurred in on construction sites,
even though the sector employees only 6% to 10% of the
workforce.
 In some countries, it is estimated that 30% of construction
workers suffer from back pains or other muscular disorders.
 Accidents are generally unavoidable in construction projects but the
number and gravity of accidents can be reduced considerably if
proper safety measures are taken beforehand.
 Health and safety in the context of construction industry are the
discipline of preserving the heath of those who build, operate, maintain
and demolish engineering works, and others involved in those works.
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1. INTRODUCTION
 The term safety generally applies to the protection from risk of
injury and from avoidable accidents.
 The term health refers to the well-being from the immediate and
long-term effects of exposure to unhealthy working condition.
 Health and safety are not only confined to construction works on-
site.
 Engineers, architects and surveyors are exposed to hazards during
the investigatory stage of a project and while carrying out inspection
tasks during the construction phase and on completed works.
 Designers, in particular, carry both a moral responsibility and a duty
of care for the safety of construction works, maintenance staff,
demolition workers and the general public.
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2. THE PROBLEM OF SAFETY AND HEALTH
 Construction industry accidents in Ethiopia have not been well
recorded. Nevertheless, it is reported that many people lost their
lives on construction sites and many more seriously injured.
 Not only are construction workers who suffer injuries and death but
also people and children who are not employed in the industry.
 Besides human tragedies, accidents could substantial economic cost
to the industry due to the fact it could also cause:
 Damage to plant and equipment
 Damage to work already completed
 Loss of productive work time while debris is cleared and
damaged work rebuilt
 Increased insurance premiums, and,
 Loss of confidence and reputation.
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3. SAFETY AND HEALTH IN INTERNATIONAL AND LOCAL
PRACTICE
 Considering the importance of health and safety of construction
workers in the industry, different countries have designed their own

norms, which fit their specific objectives.
 The International Labor Organization (ILO) provides specific
guidelines on health and safety in construction activities.

 The general objectives of health and safety norms/codes in any
country construction industry can be summarized as:

 To help prevent accidents and harmful effects on the health of
those employed in construction industry.
 To provide guidelines in the appropriate deign, selection,
installation and safe operation of equipment, and process related
to civil engineering work.
 To provide guidance in establishing administrative, legal and
educational frameworks within which preventive and remedial
measures can be implemented
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3. SAFETY AND HEALTH IN INTERNATIONAL AND LOCAL
PRACTICE
 To promote consultation and cooperation between concerned
government authority, employer's organization and worker's
organization in the improvement of safety and health in the
construction industry.
Local practices
 In the case of Ethiopia, the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs is
authorized by law for the full responsibility of consulting, monitoring

and other works related to occupational health and safety topics.
 Even though it is difficult to obtain accurate statistics since many
accidents go undetected and unreported, the number of construction

accidents occurring in Ethiopia, is increasing from time to time.
 In constructions under-taken in Ethiopia, the construction contract
agreement (i.e.) General Conditions of Contract (clause 21 - 25) and

FIDIC (clause 19 - 25) states the responsibilities of the involved
parties. These are like provisions of insurance, taking other safety
measures, etc.
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4. CAUSES OF CONSTRUCTION SITE
ACCIDENTS
 The key to control safety and health is to predict the hazards and
thus be in a position to eliminate them.
 The main causes of accident could be basically categorized based on
type into:
i. Falls
ii. Stepping on or striking against objects
iii. Lifting and carrying-over exertion
iv. Machinery
v. Electricity
vi. Transport
vii. Fires and explosions
 Causes of accident at construction sites are broadly classified as:
 Processes related
 Root causes
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ACCIDENTS
PROCESS PRONE TO ACCIDENTS
Some of the processes prone to accidents are:
 Excavation
 Scaffolding/Working at Height
 Shaft work
 False work
 Erection of Structural Framework
 Tunneling
 Use of Cranes
 Transportation & Mobile Plants
 Sewer Works
 Demolition
 Road works in hilly terrain
ACCIDENTS
Drowning Fires &
3% Explosions Misc
2% 1%
Electricity
5%
Transport
18%
People Falling
52%
Material Falling
19%
Distribution of Major Causes of Accidents in

Construction Industry
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ACCIDENTS
4.1 PROCESS RELATED CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS
A. FALLS
 Falling from heights is number one construction killer in most
countries, and it is principally due to the lack of proper edge in a

variety of construction sites.
I. PERSON FALLING
a) From scaffolds
 Most falls from scaffolds occur through personnel overbalancing,
tripping or slipping.
 The rest may be attributable to general defects in the scaffolding
such as boards slipping or breaking, the absence of guard rails,

insecure foundations etc.
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ACCIDENTS
I. PERSON FALLING
b) From ladder
 Most falls are caused by the person slipping or overbalancing and
falling from the ladder, a considerable number caused by movement

of the ladder (either the bottom slips outward or the top slip
sideways).
 A number of accidents also arise out of defects (e.g. missing or
broken rungs) in the ladder or, in some cases, by the breaking of the
ladder
c) From structure and other heights
 Such falls occur in a variety of ways- E.g.
 Falls from shuttering (often as a result of a collapse of the
shuttering on which persons are standing).
 Falls through unprotected openings and fragile roofs - and are
almost always the result of the individuals concerned.
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ACCIDENTS
I. PERSON FALLING
d) From plant
 Fall from plant are surprisingly frequent on construction sites.
 The majority of such falls occur when drivers are climbing on to, or
descending from, their machines.

e) Into excavations and manholes
 In the main, falls in to excavation usually occur when personnel slip
while trying to jump to climb out of them by means other than a

ladder.
 A surprising number of personnel fall into uncovered manholes
(particularly those which have became obscured by vegetation)

while walking across the site.
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ACCIDENTS
II. FALLS OF MATERIALS
 Materials or other objects, whether heavy or comparatively light,
gather tremendous energy in falling.

 For example, a brick dropped by a man on his own foot can
fracture a bone.
 Something very much lighter- a 20mm nut, dropped from a height
of 20m, can penetrate a man's skull and kill him.
a) From heights or into excavations
 All sorts of things - ranging from small tools to wheelbarrows,
scaffold members and girders - fall from heights.

 Mostly, the falls occur from working positions such as scaffolds or
from structures where personnel are working, faces of excavations,

or from lorries and dumpers.
 Around 50% of all injuries suffered by such are the result of falling
debris.
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ACCIDENTS
II. FALLS OF MATERIALS
b) On the level
 Most accidents result from presumed dropping materials on their
own (or other people's) feet, often during loading or unloading

operations.
 A substantial number of accidents also arise form the collapse of
unstable stacks of materials such as pipes.
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ACCIDENTS
4.2 ROOT CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS
 Accidents are primarily caused by people and not by process.
 Many safety experts have an opinion that the root causes an accident
lies in reason for the mistake having been made.

 The following root causes of accident may be cited as being the
most common:
a) Ignorance and luck of training
 The majority of plant equipment related accidents stem directly on
the operator’s misuse of such things.

 There are numerous reasons for the incorrect usage of plant and
equipment, the most common is operator’s ignorance of the correct

method of usage.
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ACCIDENTS
b) Ignorance and luck of training
 The “it can not happen to me!” attitude is regarded as the biggest
single root cause of construction related or any other types of

accidents
c) Carelessness
 Carelessness wills always be the prime contender for the role of
“root causes” in any accident in construction especially involving

young people.
 A substantial number of potential accidents can be avoided instilling
in such people that the earliest possible opportunity the need to take
care in what event they are doing by apprising what will happen if
they don’t.
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ACCIDENTS
d) Lack of discipline
 This is also anther common cases of accident involving young
persons at construction site.

e) Distraction
 Accidents resulting from distraction are numerous and ranges from
the comparatively minor variety to serious and possibly fatal

instances.
f) communication
 There are two rules regarding communication
i. Ensure that all instructions are clear and unambiguous

ii. By way of ensuring that what was heard what was meant, check
that the instructions have been fully understood
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ACCIDENTS
g) Management indifference
 As a root cause of accident management indifference to safety is
less common in the case of large well known construction

companies.
 However, the reverse is becoming increasingly the case with smaller
once which gives less priority for the safety of their employees on
account of the cost involved safety.
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ACCIDENTS
4.3 ACCIDENTS RELATED TO PLANT, MACHINERY AND
TRANSPORT
a) Striking personnel, collisions and overturning
 The majority or plant - or transport- related accidents fall within this
category.
b) Lifting appliances
 The majority of such accident consists either of personnel being
struck by swinging loads or of variety sustained in sliding

operations or while using pulley blocks.
c) Pneumatic and power tools
 Most accident in this category occur either through the misuse of
tools or a lack of concentration on the part of the user.

d) Others
 This section comprises plant and machinery related accident types
which do not fit into any of the previous three sub-categories.

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ACCIDENTS
4.4 MISCELLANEOUS CAUSES (OTHERS)
a) Stepping on, or striking against, objects
 Around 50% of the injuries from accident in this category result
from people inadvertently stepping on nail protruding from timber.

 The remainder results from a variety of causes such as striking
against protruding scaffold members or reinforcing bars, or handling

broken pipes, glass or similar sharp -edged materials without gloves.
b) Hand tools
 The majority of such accidents are caused by personnel striking
themselves, or other with picks, shovels and suchlike.

 Many accidents also result from defective tools or from
misuse of tools.
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ACCIDENTS
c) Collapse of excavation
 Such accidents, which are almost exclusively due to inadequate
support-work, are usually serious and often fatal.

 Other factors which contribute to such accidents are the movement
of plant, stacking of materials, too close edges of excavations.

 Erosion of the sides of which should not be overlooked.
d) Electricity
 Electricity is also one source of enormous potential danger.
 Electricity regularly accounts for between 5% an 10% of fatalities
in the construction industry.

 Coming in to contact with overhead lines, or from excavators or
personnel cutting through buried cables
 The use of defective or badly maintained electrical hand-tools.
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ACCIDENTS
d) Hazardous substances
 Hazardous substances have a serious impact on construction site
workers health.
 These may come in the form of liquid, gases, vapors, fumes or
dusts.
 They are contained in variety of commonly used products and
material in construction.
 The main exposure through inhaling them, but substances such as
solvents can also be absorbed through the skin.

 Very often, workers are not aware of what chemicals are contained
in the products they use, and are not told about the health hazards
and how to avoid them.
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ACCIDENTS
d) Hazardous substances
 Renal, hepatic, cardio-vascular problems and central nervous
system disorders can result from exposure to hazardous chemicals.

 Respiratory illness, bronchitis, asthma, fibrosis and cancer may
also be caused by exposure to certain materials on site.
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5. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
5.1 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS TO PREVENT FALLS OF A
PERSON
a) From scaffolds
 Suitable and sufficient scaffolds shall be provided and erected
for all construction work.
 Erection and dismantling of scaffolds should be carried out
efficiently by experienced personnel.
 Timber used for the construction of scaffolds shall be of suitable
quality, be in good condition
 Ensure that walkways have sufficient width and keep them free
from obstructions.
 Do not overload scaffolds
 Provide proper access of scaffolding to avoid personal slipping.
 Ensure that the foundations are secured and leveled
 Provide guardrails to stop persons falling.
 Scaffolds should be properly maintained to avoid accidental 20
5
PERSON
b) From ladders
 Every ladder shall be securely fixed.
 suitable footholds, and hand-holds shall be provided on the
ladder.
 shall be given an inclination not steeper than 1/4 to 1.
 Stand ladder on a firm level base.
 Ensure a correct angle of repose
 Avoid carrying materials when using a ladder.
 Check ladders regularly for defects.
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PERSON
c) From working platforms
 Working platform passageways and stairways should be so
constructed that they should not sag unduly or unequally.
 If the height of the platform or the gangway or the stair way
is more than 3.66m above ground level or floor level, they
should be closely boarded, and should have adequate width
and should be suitably fastened.
 All roof and floor edges should be fitted with barriers.
 Warning notices on fragile roof and floor levels should also
be displayed.
 Every opening in the floor of a building or to all working
platforms shall be provided with suitable means to prevent
the fall of persons or materials.
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PERSON
d) From Plants
 Prohibit the carrying of passages when there is a safe space
seat
 Prohibit the carriage of passage by plant which is not
intended for such purpose
 Instruct drivers accordingly and ensure that appropriate
warning notices are displayed wherever necessary.
e) Into excavation and manholes
 All trenches meters or more in depth at all times should be
supplied with at least one ladder for each 30m or fraction
thereof.
 Ladder shall be extended from bottom of the trench to 90cm
above the surface of the ground.
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PERSON
f) On the level
 warn personnel to look where they are going.
 Ensure that walkways are free of materials and other
obstructions which cause falls.
5.2 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS TO PREVENT FALLS OF
MATERIALS
g) From heights or into excavations
 Provide tool boxes for tools.
 Provide some form of over protection where necessary.
 Don't place materials, plant or spoil tools near the edges of
excavations.
 Provide batters for the work face of excavation
 Lower materials and other object properly, don't throw
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5.2 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS TO PREVENT FALLS OF
MATERIALS
a) From heights or into excavations
 Take particular care with demolish works.
 Encourage the wearing of safety helmets.
b) On the level
 Ensure that stacks of material are stable
 Institute a safe working procedure when materials are being
moved or stacked.
 To facilitate withdrawal of materials, ensure that material
stack is not too high.
 Don't stack materials near overhead power lines.
 Encourage the wearing of safety boots( appropriate types of
shoes)
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5.3 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS TO PREVENT ACCIDENTS BY
AGENCY OF PLANT, MACHINE AND TRANSPORT
a) Striking personnel, collision and overturning
 Position personnel and plant to avoid to former being struck
by the latter.
 Erect barrier around workman if they are in the vicinity of
moving plant or transport.
 Don't track moving plant too near the edges of excavations
 Prohibit racing and other dangerous driving
 Instruct plant operators in the correct and safe use of their
machines.
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b) Lifting appliances (Hoisting machines)
 These should be of good mechanical construction, sound
material and adequate strength and free from patent defect.
 Every rope used in hoisting and lowering materials or as a
means of suspension shall be of durable quality and adequate
strength and free from patent defects.
 Every hoisting appliance operator shall be properly qualified
(i.e.) he should be able to operate the appliance efficiently
and correctly.
 Never exceed the safe load of the appliance.
 Motors gearing, transmission, electric wiring, and other
dangerous parts of hoisting appliances should be provided
with efficient safeguards.
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b) Lifting appliances (Hoisting machines)
 Never use a crane when the wind speed is high (exceeds
300mph) at higher elevation.
 Always site the appliance on the firm level ground.
 Position personnel to avoid them being struck by swinging loads
c) Pneumatic materials and power tools
 Ensure that operator knows what he is doing
 Provide the appropriate safety clothing and/or equipment (i.e.
safety goggles, safety boots etc.) where necessary.
 Ensure that there is sufficient obstruction, free working space
around each tool.
 Protect compressed air hoses from damage.
 Instill the need for job concentration in operators.
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5.4 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR OTHER CAUSES
a) Stepping on or against objects
 Keep the site tidy and free from unnecessary rubbish
 Remove nails from timber.
 Ensure workers sufficient workspace.
 Provide protector clothing (e.g. safety boots, googols and
gloves).
a) Hand tools
 Use the right tools for the job and instruct personnel in the
correct usage
 Position personnel to avoid them from struck by picks, shovels
and others.
 Inspect handholds regularly and take defective tools out of use
until repaired.
 Load wheelbarrows evenly and not over load.
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5.4 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR OTHER CAUSES
c) Collapse of excavation
 The side of the trenches shall be stepped back to give suitable
slope or held by timber bracing or any other support
 The excavated material shall not be placed within 1.5m of the
edges of the trench.
 Cutting shall be done from top to bottom.
d) Electricity
 All power tools should be effectively earthed.
 Wherever possible use insulated caplets to carry power.
 Avoid working high plant near overhead lines.
 Be aware of buried cables when using excavating part or
trenches by hand.
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5.5 PREVENTIVE MEASURES FOR DEMOLITION WORKS
 Before any demolition work is commenced and also during the
process of the work, the following safety measures shall be taken.

 All roads and open areas adjacent to the work site shall either
be closed or suitably protected.
 No electric cable or apparatus which is liable to be a source
of danger or a cable or apparatus used by the operator shall
remain electrically charged.
 All practical steps shall be taken to prevent danger to person
from risk of fire or explosion or flooding.
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5.6 PREVENTIVE MEASURES FOR HAZARDOUS
SUBSTANCES
 principle of preventing accidents under this category involves:
 Elimination: Where a work activity involves the use of a

hazardous substance that is not essential, the hazardous
substance should be eliminated wherever practicable .
 Substitution: includes substituting hazardous substance with
less hazardous substance.
 Isolation: Isolation involves separation of the process from
people by distance or the use of barriers to prevent exposure.
 Engineering controls: these are plant or processes which
minimize the generation of hazardous substances.
 Safety work practices: administrative practices which require
people to work in safer ways.
 Personal safety protective equipments:
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6. OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS
 What are they?
 Occupational health hazards (OHH) are those hazards which are
inherent with the specific occupation
 There are some jobs in which the risk of the hazards is more and
inborn.
 It is mandatory to list the possible occupational health hazards
whenever a job specification is prepared
 OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) has laid
down the possible OHH with most kinds of the jobs and also their
safety measures
 Since construction industry too has a high risk of accidents, it is
important to know the types of OHH.
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Types
 Physical Health Hazard
 Noise
 Vibration
 Working Environment
 Ionizing Radiation
 Air Pressure Variation
 Ergonomics
 Chemical Health Hazard
 Solids
 Liquids
 Vapors, Aerosols & Gases
 Biological Health Hazard
 Bacteria, Fungi, Parasites
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6.1 PHYSICAL HEALTH HAZARD
a) Noise
 Excessive noise leads to Sensory Hearing Loss
 Noise Regulatory Levels
 Continuous noise
• 85 dBA, 8 hours-Action level (AL)
• 90 dBA, 8 hours-Permissible exposure level (PEL)
 Impact Noise
• No Exposures above 140 dBA shall be permitted
Type of Work Manual Handsaw Tractor Electric Drill Wood working
machine, Tools Class
Noise Level 80 85 90 95 100

Type of Work Power Saw Pneumatic Hammer on Chain Saw Jackhammer
Drills Nail Impact
Noise Level 110 120 120 125 130
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b) Vibration
 A most common injury is caused by continued exposure of the
hands to high frequencies of vibration from tools such as pneumatic

hammers, concrete breakers, drills and chipping hammers.
 It is usually known as vibration white fingers.
 It starts with a slight numbness in fingers and eventually causes
whiteness to the tips.

 Attacks may last for an hour and end with a sudden rush of blood to
the affected tips, often causing considerable pain.

 To avoid this use vibration isolators.
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c) Working environment
 Heat stress gives rise to number of symptoms like fatigue, loss of
concentration, rapid pulse etc. which hamper the work as well as

health of the worker
 Providing canopies or awnings over sections of the site as well as
regular breaks can be used to overcome heat stress
Temperature Rest Period/Hour
35-40 5 min
> 40 7.5 min
 Extreme cold ,biting winds and rain effect the mental stability as
well as slower muscle reaction leading to accidents as well as
diseases like Bronchitis ,Arthritis, etc
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d) Ionizing radiation
 Sealed radioactive sources are widely used in the industry to check
welded joints in pipeline and trusses

 The effect of radiation can cause radiological dermatitis, skin burns,
loss of hair and bone cancer

 Lead and concrete shielding can be used to avoid the contact with
radiation
 Use of shield layers in the personal protective equipments is also
necessary
 Specific safe distance should be maintained from the radiation
source as its intensity decreases as per inverse square law
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3
d) Compressed air
 Working at pressures above atmospheric pressure may result in
compressed air illness. e.g. Tunneling, Caissons etc

 This may cause skin irritation at lower exposures but with the more
serious forms severe pains develop in the joints and dizziness,

unconsciousness and even death may occur. It may cause asceptic
bone narcosis.
 Similarly working at pressures below atmospheric pressure may
result in problems in breathing, lung damage. e.g. High altitude

area.
 Pressure balance mechanisms such as decompression chamber is to
be used along with the proper resting schedule in the shift.
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e) Ergonomics
 Ergonomics is the study of interaction between human beings and
their working environment
 Inconvenient positions and working methods cause many
abnormalities and syndromes like
 Carpal tunnel Syndrome-Prolonged flexing of wrist. e.g.: Painter
 White finger-loss of adequate blood supply to fingers. e.g.:
Vibrations and tight gripping of Jackhammer
 Lower back pain-back stresses due to poor lifting. e.g.: Excess
weight, overhang weights
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5
e) Ergonomics
 Remedies for preventing these defects:
 Avoid sustained repetitive motions
 Work between shoulder and elbow height
 Use good illumination
 Do only what is comfortable, not pushing to the limits
 Use good posture
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6.2 CHEMICAL HEALTH HAZARD
 The degree of hazard associated with a particular chemical will
depend on:
 Its physical properties
 Its toxicity
 The way it is used
 The environment in which it is encountered
 Chemicals may be found in solid,
liquid, aerosol, or gas and vapor
form.
Solids Aerosols
 The degree of danger varies
according to the form of the
chemical and the factors discussed
Liquids Vapors above
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a) Solids
 Lead- Lead can become a human health hazard if the pipe is sanded
or welded, producing lead dust or fumes resulting in fatigue,

anemia.
 Asbestos- The demolition of buildings with asbestos insulation or
lagging has the potential for the release of massive amounts of

asbestos fibre when inhaled leads to asbestoses, lung cancer,
mesothelioma-a type of lung cancer.
 Cement- The reaction of cement with water produces large amounts
of heat as well as CO2. If proper care is not taken, this can lead to
choking of the workers in congested area where mixing is done.
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b) Liquids
 Many liquids are hazardous in contact with the skin. They either
damage the skin or they are easily absorbed through the skin
 Paints, varnishes etc generally get deposited on workers. The
chemical ingredients like Isocyanates invariably get absorbed

through the skin leading to dermatitis.
 Lead based paints constitute absorption of lead through skin.
 The contact with these liquids should be avoided. Use of protective
clothing should be encouraged to counter these hazards

 In case the contact is unavoidable, adequate shower facilities should
be provided
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c) Aerosols/Vapors/gas
 Silica dust can cause silicosis (scarring of lungs).
 Cement particles when inhaled cause asthma, and other lung diseases
 Exposure to saw fumes containing terpenes, a constituent of wood
also causes chronic obstructive impairment in lung function.

 Chronic exposure to wood dust can cause impaired nasal mucociliary
clearance and nasal cancer.

 Liquids with a low vapor pressure may create a low airborne
concentration and those with a high vapor pressure may produce high
airborne concentrations.
 Almost all types of solvents used in paints, paint removing solutions,
industrial coatings etc. evaporate and their inhalation also causes

similar breathing related diseases.
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c) Aerosols/Vapors/gas
 Carbon dioxide occurs in chalk and limestone. It results in oxygen
deficiency. Fatal accidents may occur when workers enter manholes

in surface water drainage system
 Hydrogen sulphide is highly present in sewers. High concentration
causes death while low level causes irritation to eyes, nose,

headache etc
 Nitrous fumes generally emerge with the use of explosives used
during demolition or excavation (Blasting). Low concentration can

cause bronchitis
 Gas masks depending upon the type of exposure are very suitable
against these types of chemical hazards
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7. HAZARD CONTROL MEASURES
 The measures to be taken against the hazards can be classified into
two groups:
 Proactive measures: Actions to be taken in advance,
precautionary measures and its implementation
 Safety training
 Safety program
 Inspection and checklist
 Personal protective equipments (PPE)
 Reactive measures: Actions to be taken after accident occurs
 Medical aid
 Accident reporting and analysis
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7.1 PROACTIVE MEASURES
a) Safety training program
 Training aims at preventing and minimising the accidents
 Education to the workers is provided
 Safety measures committee is formulated
 Charts, posters and show films on the need to follow safety
measures should be displayed

 The careless workers should be discontinued after sufficient
warnings
 First-Aid training to at least one worker in a team
 Proper medical checkups of the workers before employment and
also periodically
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7.1 PROACTIVE MEASURES
b) Inspection and checklist
 This is very important aspect in proactive measures.
 Checklists for various items of work at each stage are to be prepared
and accordingly inspection is to be carried out. e.g.: extract from

checklist for roofing works is shown.
Roofing
1 Except where roof battens, provide Do you propose action?
adequate handholds and foot holds,
No Yes Priority
crawling boards or crawling
ladders are used to work on roof Remarks_____________________________
slopes of more than 10 degrees ________________
2 Sufficient guard rails and toe Do you propose action?

boards or other forms of edge
No Yes Priority
protection are provided to prevent
a worker or materials falling more Remarks_____________________________
than 2 m from sloping or flat roofs ________________
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7.1 REACTIVE MEASURES
a) Medical Aid
 First-Aid should be given to injured person as soon as possible
 He then should be immediately moved to nearest hospital in case of
severe injury
 A separate vehicle for this purpose is to be maintained when the
number of workers is sufficiently large

 Medical Insurance should be provided for those workers working in
hazard susceptible zones
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7.1 REACTIVE MEASURES
b) Accident reporting analysis
 Analysis is done by the concerned engineer and he should submit
the report of analysis in standard format with the details like cause
of accident, responsibility, etc. A sample preliminary report is shown
below.
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8. PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENTS
 Personal Protective Equipments (PPE) plays a vital role in safety.
 Depending on the activities involved, PPE is chosen. E.g. as far as
masks are concerned there are different types of masks are available
but the right choice depends on the activity for which it is to be
selected.
 Generally there are numerous PPE available out of which prominent
PPEs are discussed.
Head protection
 Falling objects, overhead loads and
sharp projections are to be found

everywhere on construction sites
 Safety helmets protect the head
effectively against most of the hazards
 Everybody should wear a helmet
whenever on site and particularly
working in an area where overhead work
is going on (Hard-Hat area). This area
should be clearly marked with safety
signs
 Safety helmets have adjustable plastic or
terylene head-harness.
Hearing protection
 The noise level in some areas on
construction sites are often above the

level which causes sensory hearing
loss to workers in the vicinity
 The common form of protection in
industry is ear defender consisting of

a head band and cup
 There are several types of head bands
depending upon helmet attachment

 Helmet muffs and ear plugs can also
be used. The reduction in noise level

 Ear muffs: 25 %
 Foam expanding ear plugs: 50%
 Combination: 75%
Eye protection
 The chances of eye accidents are there in
jobs like breaking, cutting, drilling,

chipping, dry grinding, welding etc
 While working on these jobs, goggles,
safety glasses or shields are the only

practical solutions
 Wearing of eyewear is readily accepted, as
danger from flying particles and dust are

obvious to most construction workers
 Goggles, face shields and spectacles can
also be used against impact, chemicals,

molten metal and gas hazards
Respiratory protection
 On construction sites such as rock
crushing, sand blasting, asbestos

insulation/dismantling, welding / cutting
paint spraying, blasting etc. harmful dust,
mist or gas may be present.
 Whenever there is a presence of toxic
substances, respirator must be worn.

 The correct type will depend upon the
hazards and the work conditions.

 There are 3 types of face masks:
 Air borne particles

 Gases and fumes
 Both
 The simplest mask is disposable paper
type against nuisance dust.
Body protection
 Skin is extremely vulnerable to all types of
hazards in works like painting, welding,

sewer works, demolition works, etc. leading
to different types of skin diseases
 Full sleeved shirts and trousers provide good
protection against many of the hazards

 In case of ionizing radiation use of shielding
layers inside the cloths is necessary

Hand and foot protection
 Hands are most important as most of the work
is done by hands. They are susceptible to

wounds, abrasion, fractures, strains, and also
are subjected to environmental variations.
 Protective gloves solve the purpose of
preventing any hazards to hands

 Foot injuries can be:
 Due to crushing
 Due to penetration
 Safety footwear are of types like:
 Leather shoes- climbing jobs
 Normal shoes- heavy duty work
 Rubber safety Wellington shoes- corrosive
substances, chemicals and water (with steel
toes)
Safety belts and harness
 Major accidents in construction are due to falls from
heights where the provision of safe working platforms

are impracticable
 Wearing of a safety belt or harness and line or lanyard
attached to a reliable strong point above the working

position will serve the purpose of safety
 Full harness is preferable to a safety belt
 Sometimes safety harness is supplemented by use of
safety nets
 A safety harness and lanyard must
 limit the fall to a drop not more than 2 m
 Be strong enough to support the weight
 Be attached to strong structure through firm anchorage
 In case where rescue operations may arise
(underground sewer works) chest or body harnesses is
compulsory for the workers
High visibility
 High visibility of the workers and equipments in construction sites is
vital.
 This has many advantages like:
 Preventing accidents
 Spotting or location accident victim
 Clear identification/separation of the work and equipment
 The high visibility clothing maintain a contrast.
 They should be of vibrant colors with reflective stripes.
 All the types of PPE discussed so far are available with high visibility.
 Some of the disadvantages of PPE:
 Wearing PPE may involve discomfort to the user and slow down the work
and reduce efficiency.
 PPE is costly.
But as human life is precious, use of PPE should be mandatory
9. ACCIDENT COSTS
 Every accident brings with it losses in the form of sacrifice of human
life, loss of materials or equipment, injuries to workers etc.
 In turn accidents also lead to compensation cost.
 Thus accidents increase the cost of construction and decrease the
margin of profit to contractors

 They are broadly classified as:
 Tangible or Direct Cost:- The cost which can be easily ascertained or

evaluated
 Intangible or Indirect Cost:- The cost which cannot be easily
evaluated
9.1 DIRECT COST
 Direct cost includes
 Temporary or permanent injury to worker

 Cost of man-hours for the work destroyed
 Loss of equipment
 Loss of material
9. ACCIDENT COSTS
9.1 DIRECT COST
 It is possible to cover some of the direct costs through an insurance
policy. If the workers are insured then in case of accident compensation

to be given is covered by the insurance company.
 The value of other losses can be suitably computed using quantity
analysis.
9.2 INDIRECT COST
 It is not possible to cover the indirect costs through an insurance
company. Sometimes they sum up to four times that of the direct cost.
 Indirect costs include:
 Transportation: Includes cost of emergency transportation of

injured person
 Wages paid to injured workers for time not worked
 Cost incurred due to delays which resulted from accident
 Cost of overtime necessitated by accident
9. ACCIDENT COSTS
9.1 DIRECT COST
9.2 INDIRECT COST
 Loss of efficiency of crew
 Cost of education for replacement worker
 Cost of cleanup, repair and/or replacement
 Cost for rescheduling: Includes time spent by supervisors,
Engineers and foreman to review schedules and the resultant
costs of adjusting to the new schedule
 Cost for safety personnel & clerical personnel in case of
accidents: Typing, investigation, forwarding forms, etc.
 Cost of legal assistance
 Loss of reputation
10. COST OF THE SAFETY PROGRAM
 The cost of administering a construction safety and health program
usually amounts to 2.5% of direct labor cost
 These costs include:
 Salaries for safety, medical and clerical personnel
 Safety meetings
 Inspection of tools and equipments
 PPE
 Health programs such as respirator fit tests
 Miscellaneous supplies and equipments
 The net savings to be expected from introducing effective safety
program is 4 % of direct labor cost
11. QUANTIFICATION OF ACCIDENTS
 Injury Frequency Rate (IFR):
No. of disabling injuries  1,00,000
IFR 
Total no. of Man - hours worked
 The disabling injury means an injury which causes loss of working

time beyond the shift or day during which the injury occurs
 IFR denotes how frequently accidents occur
 Injury Severity Rate (ISR):
No. of days lost  1,000
ISR 
No. of Man - hours worked
 Injury Index (II)
IFR  ISR
Injury Index 
1,000
11. QUANTIFICATION OF ACCIDENTS
Example
 On a particular construction project the contractor employed on an
average 100 workers with 50 hrs/week. The project lasted for 35 weeks
and during this period, 14 disabling injuries occurred. If the no. of days
lost due to injuries is 35,
A) Calculate IFR, ISR and II
Solution
No. of disabling injuries  1,00,000 14 1,00,000
IFR   8
Total no. of Man - hours worked 100  50  35
No. of days lost  1,000 35  1,000

ISR    0 .2
Total no. of Man - hours worked 100  50  35
IFR  ISR 8  0.2

II    0.0016
1,000 1,000
THANK YOU!
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AMBO UNIVERSITY

HACHALU HUNDESSA CAMPUS

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION (CENG 4113)

a structural covering, to protect the building from weather.

The structural elements may be trusses, beams, slabs, shells or

i. It should have adequate strength and stability to carry the super-

 Pitched or Slopping roofs,

 Shape or plan of the building,

 Have slopping top surfaces.

 Considered suitable for buildings in plains or in hot regions where

 Have their top surface curved.

regarded as the cheapest alternative for covering a structure.

 In pitched roofs a slope of less than l in 3 is generally not

considered satisfactory from drainage point of view.

to reduce the incidence of snow load on the roof.

 The area covered

Shed roof Gable roof

Gambrel roof Hip roof 10

Flat roof Mansard roof

Gable dormer roof Shed dormer roof 11

a) Span: It is the clear distance between the supports of an arch, beam

f) Hip: It is the ridge formed by the intersection of two sloping

f) Purlins: They are inclined wooden members on which roof coverings

♠ King-post ♠ Queen-post ♠ Combination of king and

uneconomical. Steel trusses are commonly used for the following

such as channel, angles, RHS, T-sections and plates.

♦ Open trusses ♦ North light trusses

i. The sections comprising of a steel truss are readily available in the

heat and moisture into the building.

the roofing elements.

 the character of the building,

thatch, wood, tiles, asbestos cement sheet, galvanised corrugated

used in village areas.

cost is very low and thatch is abundantly available in those regions.

layer of zinc to protect it from rusting.

bending stresses lengthwise.

buckling, the load of full grown man.

major covering material for mainly steel roof structures.

with a controlled amount of water.

and durable and fire resisting.

manufacture and use of asbestos-based products has led to the

applied surface coatings are available.

resulting in a non-corrosive, non-combustible lightweight sheet

a dense material, which is highly ductile and malleable and can be

horizontal, is known as flat roof.

material, flat roof construction has replaced the pitched roofs in

adopted even in places where rainfall is heavy.

rainwater should be drained-off from roof surface easily and

outlets, depending upon the roofing materials and climatic

but unless correctly designed and constructed, they can be an

Advantages of Flat Roof

 The entire roof is a structural element

 The entire roof is a structural element

folded plates Z shell The lazy S

Barrel shells Short shells Hyperbolic parabolic

by any curved geometrical plane figure rotating about a central

specifications and color, the following major factors need to be

structure with a plastic material such as cement mortar, lime

Conceals inferior quality materials and defective workmanship,