Discrete Structures

Functions
Dr. Muhammad Humayoun
Assistant Professor
COMSATS Institute of Computer Science, Lahore.
mhumayoun@ciitlahore.edu.pk
https://sites.google.com/a/ciitlahore.edu.pk/dstruct/
A lot of material is taken from the slides of Dr. Atif and Dr. Mudassir
1
 Recall the Cartesian Product

• All ordered n-tuples (2 tuples in our example)

• Let S = { Ali, Babar, Chishti } and G = { A, B, C }
• S×G = { (Ali, A), (Ali, B), (Ali, C), (Babar, A), (Babar, B),
(Babar, C), (Chishti , A), (Chishti , B), (Chishti , C) }
– A relation
• The final grades will be a subset of this:
– { (Ali, C), (babar, B), (Chishti, A) }

2
 Grade Assignment
Ali A
Babar B
Chishti C

Ali A
Babar B
Chishti C

3
 Function
• This assignment is an example of a function

• A function is a set of ordered pairs in which each

x-element has only ONE y-element associated
with it

• The concept of a function is extremely important

in mathematics and computer science

4
 Definition 1
Let A and B be nonempty sets. A function f from A
to B is an assignment of exactly one element of B
to each element of A.

We write f (a) = b if b is the unique element of B

assigned by the function f to the element a of A.

If f is a function from A to B, we write f : A → B.

5
 Specifying a Function

Many different ways:

• Sometimes we explicitly state the assignments,
as in previous figure
• Often we give a formula, such as f (x) = x + 1, to
define a function
• Other times we use a computer program to
specify a function

6
7
8
 Definition 2
• If f is a function from A to B, we say that A is
the domain of f and B is the codomain of f.

Domain A B Co-domain
f

f(4.3)
4.3 4

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 Definition 2
• If f (a) = b, we say that b is the image of a and
a is a preimage of b.
Domain R Z Co-domain
f

f(4.3)
4.3 4

10
Pre-image of 4 Image of 4.3
 Definition 2
• If f is a function from A to B, we say that f
maps A to B. f maps R to Z
R f:A→B Z
Domain Co-domain
f

f(4.3)
4.3 4

Pre-image of 4 Image of 4.3

11
 Examples
A pre-image The image
Domain Co-domain of 1 of “a”
Ali A “a” 1

Babar B “bb“ 2

Chishti C “cccc” 3

Dawood D “dd” 4

Ammara F “e” 5

A class grade function A string length function

g(Ali) = A f(x) = length x

g(Babar) = C f(“a”) = 1
g(Chishti) = A f(“bb”) = 2
… …
 Definition 2
• The range of f is the set of all images of
elements of A.
Range
a 1
e 2
i 3
o 4
u 5

Some function…

13
Not a valid function!

“a” 1
“bb“ 2
“cccc” 3
“dd” 4
“e” 5
 EXAMPLE 1
at Page# 140
• What are the domain, co-domain, and range of the function
that assigns grades to students?

• Let G be the function that assigns a grade to a student in our

discrete mathematics class.
• Domain of G is {Adams, Chou, Goodfriend, Rodriguez, Stevens},
• Co-domain is the set {A,B,C,D, F}.
• Range of G is the set {A,B,C, F},
15
 EXAMPLE 2
at Page# 140
• Let R be the relation with ordered pairs (Abdul, 22), (Brenda, 24),
(Carla, 21), (Desire, 22), (Eddie, 24), and (Felicia, 22). Here each
pair consists of a graduate student and this student’s age. Specify
a function determined by this relation.
If f is a function specified by R, then f (Abdul ) = 22,
Abdul 22
f (Brenda) = 24, f (Carla) = 21, f (Desire) = 22,
Brenda 24 f (Eddie) = 24, and f (Felicia) = 22. (Here, f (x) is the
Carla 21 age of x, where x is a student.)

Desire
Eddie
Domain: set {Abdul, Brenda, Carla, Desire, Eddie, Felicia}.
Felicia
Co-domain: set {21, 22, 24}.
Range: set {21, 22, 24}.

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 Example#4 at Page 40
• Let f : Z → Z
assign the square of an integer to this integer
• What is f (x) =?
– f(x) = x2
• What is domain of f ?
– Set of all integers
• What is codomain of f ?
– Set of all integers
• What is the range of f ?
– {0, 1, 4, 9, . . . }. All integers that are perfect squares
17
 Function arithmetic
• Just as we are able to add (+), subtract (-), multiply
(×), and divide (÷) two or more numbers, we are able
to + , - , × , and ÷ two or more functions

• Let f and g be functions from A to R. Then f + g, f – g,

f × g and f/g are also functions from A to R defined
for all x ∈ A by:
• (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
• (f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)
• (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x) (f g)(x) Ξ (f × g)(x)
• (f/g)(x) = f(x)/g(x) given that g(x)≠0 18
 Example 6 at Page# 141
• Let f1 and g be functions from R to R such that:
• f(x) = x2 //square function
• g (x) = x − x2 //some other function
• What are the functions f + g and f g?
• f + g = (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) = x2 + (x − x2) = x
• (f g) = (f g)(x) = f(x)g(x) = x2(x − x2) = x3 − x4
• What is f(x)+g(x) and f+g(x) if x=2?
• f(2)=4, g(2)=-2; f(2)+g(2) = 4-2=2
• f+g(2) = 2
19
 Another Example
• Let f and g be functions from R to R such that:
• f (x) = 3x+2
• g (x) = -2x + 1
• What is the function f g?

• f g = (f g) (x) = f (x)g(x) = (3x+2)(-2x+1) = -6x2- x +2

Let x = -1, what is f(-1).g(-1) and (f g)(-1)?
f (-1) = 3(-1) + 2 = -1 (f g) (-1) = -6(-1)2 – (-1) + 2
g(-1) = -2(-1) + 1= 3 = -6+1+2
f(-1) g(-1) = -1×3 = -3 = -3 20
 Types of Function
• One to One Functions
 Function, f: X→Y is one-one, if images of distinct elements of
X are distinct under f.
• One to Many Functions
 Function, f: X→Y is one-many, if images of distinct elements of
X are not distinct under f.
a 1
a 1 e 2
e 2 i 3
i 3 o 4
o 4 5
5 X Y
X Y A one-to-many function
A one-to-one function ( not one-to-one) 21
 One-to-one functions
• A function is one-to-one if each element in the
co-domain has a unique pre-image
• Formal definition: A function f is one-to-one if
f(x) = f(y) implies x = y.
a 1 a 1
e 2 e 2
i 3 i 3
o 4 o 4
5 5

A one-to-one function A function that is

not one-to-one 22
 More on one-to-one
• Injective is synonymous with one-to-one
– “A function is injective”
• A function is an injection if it is one-to-one
a 1
• Note that there can e 2

be un-used elements i 3
o 4
in a co-domain 5

A one-to-one function

23
 Example# 9 at Page# 142
• Determine that the function f(x) = x2 of type
from (the set of integers to the set of
integers is) Z × Z is one-to-one.

• 0 -> 0
• 1 -> 1 -1 -> 1
• 2 -> 4 -2 -> 4
• 3 -> 9 -3 -> 9
• 10 -> 100 -10 -> 100
• The function f (x) = x2 is not one-to-one
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 Example# 10 at Page# 142
• Determine whether the function f (x) = x + 1 from
the set of real numbers to itself is one-to one.

• 0 -> 1
• 1 -> 2
• 2 -> 3
• 3 -> 4
• 10 -> 11
• The function f (x) = x + 1 is a one-to-one function.
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• Next Class

26
 Onto functions
• A function is onto if each element in the co-
domain is an image of some pre-image
• Formal definition: A function f is onto if for all
y  C, there exists x  D such that f(x) = y.
a 1 a 1
e 2 e 2
i 3 i 3
o 4 o 4
u 5

An onto function A function that

is not onto
27
 More on onto
• Surjective is synonymous with onto
– “A function is surjective”
• A function is a surjection if it is onto

• Note that there can a 1

be multiple used e 2

elements in the i 3
o 4
co-domain u

An onto function
28
 Example # 12 at Page# 143
• Let f be the function from {a, b, c, d} to {1, 2, 3}
defined by f (a) = 3, f (b) = 2, f (c) = 1, and f (d) =
3. Is f an onto function?

• f (a) = 3
• f (b) = 2
• f (c) = 1
• f (d) = 3
• Yes, f is an onto function
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 Example # 13 at Page# 143
• Determine that the function f(x) = x2 of type Z × Z
is onto?
• No 0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
⁞ 4
5
6
7
8
9
⁞ 30
 Example # 14 at Page# 143
• Is the function f (x) = x + 1 from the set of
integers to the set of integers onto?

• 0 -> 1
• 1 -> 2
• 2 -> 3
• 3 -> 4
• 10 -> 11
• The function f (x) = x + 1 is a onto function.
31
 Onto vs. one-to-one
• Are the following functions onto, one-to-one,
both, or neither?
a 1 a 1
a 1
b 2 b 2
b 2
c 3 c 3
c 3
4 d 4
4
A)1-to-1, not onto C)Both 1-to-1 and onto E) Not a valid function
a 1 a 1
b 2 b 2
c 3 c 3
d d 4
B) Onto, not 1-to-1 D) Neither 1-to-1 nor onto 32
 Bijections
• Consider a function that is
both one-to-one and onto: a 1
b 2
c 3
• Such a function is a one-to-
d 4
one correspondence, or a
bijection

33
 Example # 16 at Page# 144
• Let f be the function from {a, b, c, d} to {1, 2, 3, 4}
with f (a) = 4, f (b) = 2, f (c) = 1, and f (d) = 3. Is f a
bijection?

• f (a) = 3
• f (b) = 2
• f (c) = 1
• f (d) = 3
• Yes, f is an onto function and one to one function.
Hence, Bijection.
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 Identity functions
• A function such that the image and the pre-
image are ALWAYS equal

• f(x) = 1*x
• f(x) = x + 0

• The domain and the co-domain must be the

same set

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 Inverse of a Function
• For bijections f:AB, there exists an inverse of f,
written f 1:BA, which is the unique function
such that: 1
f f I
• If the inverse function of f exists, f is called
invertible.
• The function is not invertible if it is not bijection.

36
 Inverse functions
If f(a) = b, then f-1(b) = a

Let f(x) = 2*x

f

f-1
f(4.3)
4.3 8.6
f-1(8.6)

Then f-1(x) = x/2

37
 More on inverse functions
• Can we define the inverse of the following
functions?
a 1 a 1
b 2 b 2
c 3 c 3
4 d

• What is f-1(2)? • What is f-1(2)?

• Not onto! • Not 1-to-1!

• An inverse function can ONLY be defined on a

bijection
38
 Example 18
at Page #146
• Let f be the function from {a, b, c} to {1, 2, 3} such
that f (a) = 2, f (b) = 1, and f (c) = 3. Is f invertible,
and if it is, what is its inverse?

39
 Example 19
at Page #146
• Let f : Z → Z be such that f (x) = x + 1. Is f invertible, and if it is,
what is its inverse?

• 0 -> 1
• 1 -> 2
• 2 -> 3
• 3 -> 4
• 10 -> 11
• The function f (x) = x + 1 is a one-to-one and onto function, therefore, f is
invertible.

• Suppose That y=x+1

• x= y-1
• f-1 (y)=y-1 40
 Example 20
at Page #146
• Let f be the function from R to R with f (x) = X2, Is f
invertible?

• 0 -> 0
• 1 -> 1 -1 -> 1
• 2 -> 4 -2 -> 4
• 3 -> 9 -3 -> 9
• 10 -> 100 -10 -> 100
• The function f (x) = x2 is not one to one

• Therefore, Not Invertible.

41
 Example 21
at Page #146
• Show that if we restrict the function f (x) = X2 in Example 20 to a
function from the set of all nonnegative real numbers to the set of
all nonnegative real numbers, then f is invertible.

42
 Compositions of functions
Let f(x) = 2x+3 Let g(x) = 3x+2
f○g
R R R
g f

g(1) f(5)
f(g(1))=13
1
g(1)=5

(f ○ g)(1)

f(g(x)) = 2(3x+2)+3 = 6x+7

43
 Compositions of functions
Does f(g(x)) = g(f(x))?

Let f(x) = 2x+3 Let g(x) = 3x+2

f(g(x)) = 2(3x+2)+3 = 6x+7

Not equal!
g(f(x)) = 3(2x+3)+2 = 6x+11

Function composition is not commutative!

44
 Proving a function is 1-1
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bjATxNZp4GI

• A function is said to be 1-1 if whenever F(x)=f(y)

then x=y, i.e., for same input, output is also same.

10/16/2023
 Proving a function is onto
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uzlj6N5OYcM

10/16/2023
 Example 22
at Page# 147
• Let g be the function from the set {a, b, c} to itself such that g(a) =
b, g(b) = c, and g(c) = a. Let f be the function from the set {a, b, c}
to the set {1, 2, 3} such that f (a) = 3, f (b) = 2, and f (c) = 1. What
is the composition of f and g, and what is the composition of g
and f ?

• Solution:
 The composition f ◦ g is defined by (f ◦ g)(a) = f (g(a)) = f (b) = 2,
 (f ◦ g) (b) = f (g(b)) = f (c) = 1,
 and (f ◦ g)(c) = f (g(c)) = f (a) = 3.
• Note that g ◦ f is not defined, because the range of f is not a
subset of the domain of g.

47
 Example 23
at Page# 147
• Let f and g be the functions from the set of integers to the set of
integers defined by f (x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = 3x + 2. What is the
composition of f and g? What is the composition of g and f ?

• Solution:
• Both the compositions f ◦ g and g ◦ f are defined. Moreover,
• (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (3x + 2) = 2(3x + 2) + 3 = 6x + 7
and
• (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(2x + 3) = 3(2x + 3) + 2 = 6x + 11.

48
 Proving Function problems
•
 Defining Functions
• Square Function:
F: Z→Z
F(x)= x*x
• Sum Function:
Sum: R→R→R
Sum (x,y)= x+y
• Abs Function:
Abs: Z→Z
 │x│=

50
 Defining Functions …
• abs function:

– =.
• Is the following a valid absolute function?

– =.

51
 Defining Recursive Function
• Factorial of n = n× (n-1) ×(n-2)×…. ×1
• Factorial of 0 = 1
• Factorial of 1 = 1

• =.

52
 Another Example
• Suppose that is defined recursively by

• To find f(2), we also need to find f(1):

• f(1) = f(0) + 3 = 100 + 3 = 103
• f(2) = f(1) + 3 = 103 + 3 = 106
• What is f(5)?
• F(5) = f(4)+3 = [f(3)+3] +3 = [[f(2)+3]+3]+3
• = [[[f(1)+3]+3]+3]+3 = [[[[f(0)+3]+3]+3]+3]+3 53
54