Stars

Srinideeswaran Sivasankar Girish Narayan

Contents 1/3

Stars & Distances

● Introduction To The Sun
● The Milky Way
● Nuclear Fusion In Stars
● Spectroscopy
● Astronomical Distances
● Bill Nye The Freakin’ Science Guy Video!
Contents 2/3

Star Formation
● Clusters
● Nebulae
● Protostars
● Stellar Nurseries
● Stable Stars
● Main Sequence Stars
● Life Cycle Of Low-Mass Stars
● Life Cycle Of High-Mass Stars
● Supernovae
● Neutron Stars
● Black Holes
Contents 3/3

Ending
● Glossary
● Quiz, What Did You Learn?
● Space Movies You Could Watch!
● Citations
● Thank You
Stars & Distances
Srinidheeswaran Sivasankar
Introduction To The Sun
The Sun is a 4.5 billion year old yellow dwarf star and a hot

glowing ball of Hydrogen and Helium. It is about 150 million

kilometers from Earth. The temperature on the Sun ranges

from 5,973 - 15,000,000 degrees Celsius. The Sun’s

orbital speed around the Milky Way is 720,000 Km/h or 200 Km/s.
Sun’s magnetic field
The Milky Way
The Milky Way is a spiral galaxy because if you could view it from the top or
bottom, it would look like a spinning pinwheel. The Sun is located on one of the
spiral arms , about 25,000 light-years away from the center of the galaxy. There is
a black hole at the very center of the galaxy. The Milky Way roughly holds around
200 billion stars.

Milky Way as viewed from

Earth
Nuclear Fusion In Stars
Nuclear Fusion reactions power the Sun and the other stars. In a fusion reaction,
two light nuclei merge to form a single heavier nucleus. The process releases
energy because the total mass of the resulting single nucleus is less than the
mass of the two original nuclei. The leftover mass becomes energy.

A Nuclear Fusion reaction

Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy is the study of spectra from a star. It was first initiated by Isaac
Newton in 1666. This led to the creations of the colors in the visible spectrum. In
1814, Joseph Fraunhofer spotted dark lines that cross the sunlight’ spectrum. He
declared it the absorption spectrum.
● The lines in the spectrum allowed astronomers to work out elements the stars
holded.
● Through this they discovered that they move to the red end of the spectrum -
a redshift.
● This tells that light shifts towards longer wavelengths.

An antique
spectroscope
Astronomical Distances
● To measure the distances between very distant galaxies astronomers rely on
exploding stars known as supernovae. The rate at which a certain class of
supernovae brighten and fade reveals their true brightness, which then can be
used to calculate their distance.
● The astronomers usually use light-years to measure the distance between
stars. A light-year is a distance of light that can travel in one year. One light
year equals 9.5 trillion Km/ 9.5*10^12 Km.
● The astronomical unit (symbol: au or AU) is a unit of length, roughly the
distance from Earth to the Sun and approximately equal to 150 million
kilometres (93 million miles) or 8.3 light-minutes.
Bill Nye The Science Guy Video!
Star Formation
Girish Narayan
 Clusters
Throughout most of the heavens there are fuzzy patches. Some patches are
stellar clusters, which are collections of stars.
● Open clusters - loose groups of a few hundred stars
● Globular clusters - are dense collections of thousands of stars
Omega Centauri, is a globular Astronomer
The Pleiades, is an open cluster in the cluster made up of hundreds of Charles Messier
constellation Taurus. It is called the Seven thousands of stars curled up into was hailed the
Sisters. In total, it contains more than 100 a ball. They contain ancient stars,
around 10 billion years old.
‘Ferret Of Comets”
stars, all of them hot, blue, and young, about
80 million years old.
for discovering 15
comets, a
compilation
(catalog) of 104
clusters and
nebulae.

Reflection
nebula
Nebulae
Other fuzzy spots are nebulae, which are areas of blazing gas. They constitute
the observable portion of the interstellar medium. All stars form from a giant
interstellar cloud of hydrogen gas and dust.
● Dark Nebulae - clouds of gas and dust that remain dark, generally cold
● Bright Nebulae - clouds of gas and dust that are lit up, mostly hot
‘The Running
Man’ or the
‘Nebulae Of the
The Horsehead Orion Hunter’.
Nebula is a well-
known dark
nebula in Orion, This is a picture of
and has a the M42, in the
temperature of - Orion Nebula.
260°C.
Protostars
Protostars are formed from interstellar clouds (gas and dust) which contain
molecular clouds, which are cold and concentrated, full of hydrogen for the
formation of a star.
Protostars (Continuation)
Within a nebula, gravity draws atoms towards one another until they produce a
glowing ball of gas known as a protostar.
● The density of the protostar will rise as the particles are drawn closer together
● This produces more frequent collisions between the particles, which raises
the temperature
● Once a protostar is formed, its life cycle will depend on its mass
Stellar Nurseries
Stellar nurseries are an area of outer space within a dense nebula in which gas
and dust are contracting, resulting in the formation of new stars.

The top of one pillar shows fingerlike blobs of gas called EGGs, or evaporating
gaseous globules, where material is collapsing to form stars.

Star formation occurs in

giant molecular clouds
around the heavens, such as
M16, the Eagle Nebula in
Serpens. The Hubble Space
Telescope has captured
images of dark columns
called "the pillars of
creation," where star
formation is taking place.
Stable Stars
A star is stable when its outward radiation pressure balances or is in equilibrium
with the inward gravitational pressure.
● Hot bodies exert forces called radiation pressure
● The hotter the object, the greater its radiation pressure

High temperature leads to a higher radiation pressure, and therefore acts

outwards, to make the star expand. It acts opposite to the force of gravity pulling
the star inwards, to make the star contract. These forces are eventually balanced
over time.
Main Sequence Stars
Nuclear fusion processes occur within the protostar's core once it becomes
hot enough. Hydrogen nuclei will combine to generate helium nuclei.
● Every fusion reaction generates heat (and light) energy
● This keeps the core warm.
● A main-sequence star is one that has initiated fusion.

During the main sequence, the star is said to be stable because it is in

equilibrium.The gravitational inward force equals the fusion processes'
outward pressure force. Our Sun is a main
sequence star, a G-
type yellow dwarf that
has an estimated total
lifetime of around 10
billion years before it
leaves its main
sequence phase.
Life Cycle Of Low-Mass Stars
Life Cycle Of High-Mass Stars
Supernovae
In the penultimate stages of a star, iron in the core of a supergiant builds up until
completely used up. This causes the core to collapse, and energy is released that
the star blasts itself apart in a supernova explosion. This results in heavier
elements to scattered across space, providing material for new stars.

History Of The Supernovae

In 1572, Tycho Brahe saw a supernova which made him

realize that the heavens were not unchanging, and were
indeed ongoing.
Supernovae (Continuation)
End states

Supernova survival depends on core mass; less than three solar masses shrink to
dense neutron stars, while greater masses form black holes and vanish from the
visible universe.
Neutron Star
Supernova
1987A SUPERNOVA On
February 23, 1987,
astronomers discovered a
bright supernova (left) in the
Large Magellanic Cloud, one
of our galaxy's closest
neighbors. It grew about 85
days to become visible to Black Hole
the human eye. The star that
burst was Sanduleak -
69°202 (far left), a blue giant
about 20 times the mass of
the Sun.
Supernovae (Continuation)
Measuring Distances G299 Type Ia Remnant

Redshift and CMBR allow for precise Universe measurements, with “standard candles” such
as supernovae being critical.

● Certain types have the same peak level of brightness or luminosity (absolute
magnitude).
● They are measured through Type 1a Supernovae
Single Degenerate System Double Degenerate System

A white dwarf pulls Two white dwarfs spiral

material form a nearby inward and merge until
companion star (binary they make contact and
star) and grows until it trigger a nuclear reaction
reaches critical mass or to generate a type 1a
the Chandrasekhar Limit, supernovae.
which is 1.4MSun.
Neutron Stars
A supernova occurs when the core of a big star collapses due to gravity, forcing
atoms to break down. Each atom's nucleus is invaded by negatively charged
electrons, which combine with positively charged protons to generate neutrons
with no electric charge.
● The collapsing core expands into a city-sized neutron star
● It spins fiercely and emits radiation pulses
● When we detect neutron star pulses, we call it a pulsar
In the year 1054, Chinese astronomers observed
a star in the constellation Taurus that was bright
enough to be seen in daytime. We now know that
the renowned Crab Nebula was formed by a
supernova explosion. The collapsed core, which
we detect as a pulsar, is buried within the nebula.
Neutron Stars (Continuation)
Neutron Stars are miniscule bodies, and spin around rapidly. They are therefore,
highly magnetic, causing them to generate radio waves, which are emitted as
pulsing signals.
A neutron star is typically 12 miles
(20 kilometers) wide. Despite this,
it has the mass of up to three
Suns. As a result, it is quite dense.
A pinhead of neutron-star stuff is
double the weight of the world's
heaviest supertanker. It is unlike
any other stuff on Earth.
In 1967, astronomist,
Jocelyn Bell picked up
signals pulsating every
1.337 seconds. This is
was the first pulsar ever
recorded, and is called
PSR 1919+21.
Black Holes
When a collapsing star’s core is massive enough, it shrinks as its gravity grows
stronger. This causes neutrons to get crushed and make a dense core that light
cannot escape from - a black hole.
● Black holes form a bottomless gravitational well
● Paths of light passing close to black holes are bent
● Light rays that stray too close are sucked in
Black Holes (Continuation)
Whirlpools

The gravity of a black hole, like that of a whirlpool, attracts

neighboring matter. Its mass is the same as that of its star core,
but the closer an item gets to it, the stronger the gravity. To
escape at the event horizon, an object must travel faster than
light, making escape impossible.

Accretion (Dark) Disks

In space, black holes are invisible, but they can be discovered

indirectly if they are part of a binary star system. The matter
from the other star attracts, forming a "accretion disk" that
generates X-rays owing to friction. Many X-ray binaries with
black holes have been discovered.
Ending
Glossary
Stellar Clusters - A group of stars or galaxies that are gravitationally bound together.

Nebula - A vast cloud of gas and dust in interstellar medium.

Interstellar Clouds - A cloud of gas and dust that occupies space between stars.

Molecular Clouds - A cloud of interstellar gas that consists mostly of molecular hydrogen and
is cold and dense enough to collapse to form stars.

Protostar - A very young star that is still gathering mass from its parent molecular cloud.

Stellar Nursery - An area of outer space within a dense nebula in which gas and dust are
contracting.

Radiation Pressure - The outward force due to the high temperature of the star.

Main Sequence Star - A stable star that is burning its hydrogen in its core.
Glossary
Equilibrium - The point when the inward gravitational force of a star equals the outward
radiation pressure.

Supernovae - A massive star that has exploded and is up to a million times brighter than
usual.

Neutron Star - A collapsed star composed almost entirely of neutrons which forms when a
star with more than eight solar masses reaches the end of its life.

Black Hole - A compact region of space where mass has collapsed and whose gravity
stops anything from escaping.
Quiz, What Did You Learn?
1. Which is the approximate value for one light year?

A. 9.5 x 10^15 km B. 9.5 x 10^15 m

C. 9.5 x 10^15 s D. 9.5 x 10^15 days

2. Which process makes the star stable and what product is produced through the process?

Process Product

A Nuclear Fission Hydrogen

B Nuclear Fusion Hydrogen
C Nuclear Fusion Helium
D Nuclear Fission Oxygen
Quiz, What Did You Learn? (Continuation)
3. Which of the following sequences, describes a life cycle of a star around the size of the sun?
A. Interstellar hydrogen clouds → protostar → main sequence star → red giant → planetary nebula → white dwarf → supernovae

B. Interstellar hydrogen clouds → planetary nebulae → main sequence star → red supergiant → planetary nebula → neutron star

C. Interstellar hydrogen clouds → protostar → planetary nebula → red giant → white dwarf → neutron star

D. Interstellar hydrogen clouds → protostar → main sequence star → red giant → planetary nebula → white dwarf

4. What is the reason a Main sequence star is so stable?

A. The number of atoms remain the same B. The radiation pressure balances the pressure of weight
C. Magnetic forces within it hold it together D. It has plenty of emotional support from it's friends

5. What is a star if it is very hot but not bright?

There’s no space write the options, just say it out loud!

Space Movies You Could Watch!
1. 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968)
2. Solaris (1971)
3. Star Wars (1977- 2019)
4. Alien (1986 - 2017)
5. Apollo 13 (1995)
6. The Fifth Element (1997)
7. Wall-E (2008)
8. Star Trek (2009)
9. Moon (2009)
10. Gravity (2013)
11. Interstellar (2014)
12. The Martian (2015)
13. Hidden Figures (2016)
14. First Man (2018)
15. Ad Astra (2019)
Citations
● Cambridge IGCSE Physics Third Edition Coursebook By David Sang
Mike Follows & Sheila Tarpey
● Universe By DK Eyewitness
● Theory Of Everything By Stephen Hawking
● India In Space By HarperCollinsChildren’sBooks
● https://www.savemyexams.com/igcse/physics/cie/23/revision-notes/6-sp
ace-physics/6-2-stars--the-universe/6-2-2-stars/
● https://youtu.be/cRYu8pMg9zQ?si=UOetjyUWWDxuSuoP
“Somewhere, something incredible
is waiting to be known.”

CARL SAGAN