COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

Topics to be covered
• Component modeling
• Machine and tool selection
• Defining process and parameters
• Toolpath generation
• Simulation
• Post processing
 COMPONENT MODELING
The geometric module allows the user to perform
several operations such as model construction,
editing and manipulation of geometry, scaling,
rotation, translation, drafting and documentation.

The analyses module allows the user to analyze

their design according to their application field such
as electrical, architectural and mechanical.
 FEATURE BASED DESIGN
Geometric or Form Feature
• A part model starts with a base feature and
then additional features are added one at a
time until the accurate representation of a
part’s geometry is attained.
• A feature is a basic block that is used to build a
design by merging with other features.
• Geometric features relate geometry and
topology of a part.
• FEATURE BASED DESIGN (FBD) SYSTEM:
When two types of information, namely,
geometric and machining are integrated into
one feature, some difficulties arise when
features interact with one another.
FEATURE BASED MACHINING
 DESIGN FEATURES

• For creating a shape

• For providing a function

Motion Slot feature

 MANUFACTURING FEATURES

• For process selection Manufacturing

is feature based.
• For fixturing

Drilling Round hole

Turning Rotational feature
End milling Plane surface,
Hole, profile, slot
pocket
Ball end mill Free form surface
Boring Cylindrical shell
Reaming Cylindrical shell
End mill a slot
... ...
 MODEL LEADS TO QUESTIONS

• How can we make it?

• Is this like something else that we’ve done?
– Yes; What methods were used?

– No; Design a new process

• How much does it cost?

• How long will it take us to complete it?
• How reliable will it be?
• How can we recycle it
 What methods to be used?

• Machining methods
• Pressworking
• Welding/fabrication
• Casting
• Powder materials
• Layered deposition
• Others
 PRODUCT REPRESENTATION

Geometrical information
Part shape
Design features
Technological information
Tolerances
Surface quality (surface finish, surface integrity)
Special manufacturing notes
Etc.
"Feature information"
Manufacturing features
e.g. slots, holes, pockets, etc.
 WHAT INPUT REPRESENTATIONS
Line drawing
Special language
Symbolic representation
Solid model
CSG
B-Rep
others?
Feature based model
ENGINEERING DESIGN MODELING
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10" +0.01
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7" +0.05
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CSG MODEL
B-REP MODEL
 C AM
C AD P ro cess P l an n er

• d rawi n g i n t erp ret at i o n

2 -D
• v ari an t t y p e p l an g en erat i o n NC co n t ro l
Draft i n g
• i n t eract i v e p art p ro g rammi n g

2 -D • au t o mat i c d rawi n g i n t erp ret at i o nAu t o mat i c p art

Draft i n g • g en . t y p e p l an g en erat i o n p ro g rammi n g

• i n t eract i v e d rawi n g i n t erp ret at i o n

3 -D C AD can n ed cu t t er
• g en . / v ari an t t y p e p l an
M o d el p at h cy cl es
g en erat i o n

• g eo met ri c reaso n i n g
3 -D au t o mat i c p art
• ex p ert p l an n er
S o l i d M o d el p ro g rammi n g
• n o h u man d eci si o n

• feat u re refi n emen t

F eat u re b ased • l i mi t ed g eo met ri c reaso n i n g can n ed / au t o . cu t t er
so l i d mo d el • g en erat i v e p l an n i n g p at h cy cl e
• seq may d i ct at ed b y d esi g n
MACHINE AND TOOL SELECTION

Machine tools are used to achieve the

maximum possible productivity and to
maintain the prescribed accuracy and the
degree of surface finish over their entire
service life.
Machine tools must provide the following general requirements:
According to the functions of the machines

• Turning Machines
• Drilling Machines
• Milling Machines
• Shaping Machines
• Grinding Machines
• Sawing Machines
• Broaching Machines
• Gear Cutter Machines
• Super Finish Machines
• With countless 5-axis and multi-tasking machines with
advanced capabilities on the market today, it can be
overwhelming when trying to choose the best solution for
your operations.
• After all, you don’t want to overspend on unnecessary
functions or under invest in technology that could make
you more profitable in the long run.
• You want a machine that offers the highest possible
performance for your exact needs at the lowest possible
operating and downtime costs — what we refer to as the
best cost of ownership.
• When trying to identify the manufacturing system that’s
going to make you the most competitive and profitable,
you should start by considering how different 5-axis and
multi-taking platforms might play into your current needs
and future business growth.
Here are some points to ponder:
How complex are your parts? Simultaneous 5-axis and multi-tasking machines can
both process complex parts. However, with the addition of turning, multi-
tasking machines can go the extra mile.

Is floor space an issue in your facility? Multi-tasking machines, which combine

milling and turning operations, can reduce the amount of equipment on your
shop floor.

Do you need to decrease your cycle times? Multi-tasking machines combine

milling and turning operations, which results in fewer setups and shorter cycle
times.

Is maximum part precision critical to your operations? Simultaneous 5-axis and

multi-tasking machines both provide high accuracy performance. Multi-tasking,
however, eliminates the inaccuracies that can occur when moving parts across
multiple stations.
• Do you require periodic access to your workpiece? A single-
table machine provides the easiest possible access to a
workpiece during the machining process.

• Are you producing large volumes of parts? A machine with

pallet-changing capabilities will increase your spindle
utilization and overall productivity.
 PROCESS PARAMETERS
Process Parameters (also called a process variable) are certain measures
that refer to status of the process (their values indicate whether the process
meets the plan or it needs adjustment).

In order to obtain effective execution of the process its parameters should stay
under continuous control.
Process Predictive Control is a process management conception
that implies ability to monitor processes (especially it refers to
industrial processes) continuously and immediately at operation, on
every working element of a process, on its very essential operation,
activity or process step.
This approach requires:

Implementing advanced industrial sensors and detectors;

Effective data communication and processing;

Virtual modeling capability (requiring IT hardware and software);

Intelligent automatics and qualified operators;

SIMULATION
 SIMULATION
Simulation in manufacturing systems is the use of software to make
computer models of manufacturing systems, so to analyze them and
thereby obtain important information.

It has been syndicated as the second most popular management

science among manufacturing managers.
• Simulation gives us some measure of this impact.

Measures which can be obtained by a simulation analysis are:

• Parts produced per unit time
• Time spent in system by parts
• Time spent by parts in queue
• Time spent during transportation from one place to another
• In time deliveries made
• Build up of the inventory
• Inventory in process
• Percent utilization of machines and workers.
POST - PROCESSOR
 What is a Post-Processor?
• Most CAM systems generate one or more types of neutral language files
containing instructions for a CNC machine. These are either in a binary
format called CLDATA or some ASCII readable format tailored after the APT
language.

• APT is an acronym for “Automatically Programmed Tools,” software that

accepts symbolic geometry and manufacturing instructions, and generates
CLDATA describing the manufacturing operation in absolute terms.

• Some CAM systems provide a large degree of flexibility, allowing just about
anything to be included in the neutral file, others are quite strict about what
can and cannot be included.
• At the other end of the equation sits the NC machine.

• It requires input customized for the controller being used and arguably
to a lesser extent, the operator running the machine.

• Most important, the NC machine must be driven in a manner that

satisfies shop floor criteria, which are primarily based on safety,
efficiency and tradition.
Between these two lies the post-processor. The post-processor is
software responsible for translating neutral instructions from the
CAM system into the specific instructions required by the NC
machine .

This software responds to the unique requirements and limitations

of the CAM system, NC machine and manufacturing environment.

Therefore, post-processing is an important part of factory

automation, as is anything that lies on the critical path between the
design engineer and the shipping department.
POST PROCESSING
About CL Data
Cutter Location (CL) data files are generated from the cutter paths specified
within Creo NC NC sequences. Each NC sequence generates a separate CL file. You
can also create a single file for a whole operation.
These CL data files can then be passed to machine-specific or generic post-processors
for NC tape generation or DNC communications.

CL Data Window
While creating an NC sequence, you can display the CL data in a separate window by
clicking in the tab of the sequence you are creating. This window is only for display
purpose and has a scroll bar. The CL Data window icon is also available in dialog
boxes of tool motions such as Follow Curve, Curve Cut, Drive Surface Cut, Go to tool
motions, and Approach-Exit tool motions. When you click the icon in a Tool Motion
dialog box, the CL data of the selected tool motion is displayed in a CL Data window.
 It is binary code used by electronic equipment to handle text using the English alphabet,
numIt is a code for representing 128 English characters as numbers, with each letter
assigned a number from 0 to 127. For example, the ASCII code for uppercase M is 77.
Most computers use ASCII codes to represent text, which makes it possible to transfer
data from one computer to another.
bers, and other common symbols. ASCII is an abbreviation for American Standard Code
for Information Interchange.
REVERSE ENGINEERING
 Introduction
• In today’s intensely competitive global market,
product enterprises are constantly seeking
new ways to shorten lead times for new
product developments that meet all customer
expectations.
 What Is Reverse Engineering?
• Engineering is the process of designing, manufacturing, assembling,
and maintaining products and systems.
• Forward engineering and Reverse engineering.
• Forward engineering is the traditional process of moving from high-
level abstractions and logical designs to the physical implementation
of a system.
• In some situations, there may be a physical part/ product without any
technical details, such as drawings, bills-of-material, or without
engineering data.
• The process of duplicating an existing part, subassembly, or product,
without drawings, documentation, or a computer model is
known as reverse engineering.
• Reverse engineering is now widely used in numerous applications, such
as manufacturing, industrial design, and jewelry design and
reproduction

• For example, when a new car is launched on the market, competing

manufacturers may buy one and disassemble it to learn how it was built
and how it works.

• In software engineering, good source code is often a variation of other

good source code.

• In some situations, such as automotive styling, designers give shape to

their ideas by using clay, plaster, wood, or foam rubber, but a CAD
model is needed to manufacture the part.

• As products become more organic in shape, designing in CAD becomes

more challenging and there is no guarantee that the CAD representation
will replicate the sculpted model exactly.
•In the intensely competitive global market, manufacturers are constantly
seeking new ways to shorten lead times to market a new product.

•Rapid product development (RPD) refers to recently developed technologies

and techniques that assist manufacturers and designers in meeting the demands
of shortened product development time.

• For example, injection-molding companies need to shorten tool and die

development time drastically. By using reverse engineering, a three-dimensional
physical product or clay mock-up can be quickly captured in the digital form,
remodeled, and exported for rapid prototyping/tooling or rapid manufacturing
using multi-axis CNC machining techniques.
 Why Use Reverse Engineering?
• The original manufacturer no longer exists, but a customer needs the
product ,e.g., aircraft spares required typically after an aircraft has
been in service for several years.

• The original manufacturer of a product no longer produces the

product, e.g., the original product has become obsolete.

• The original product design documentation has been lost or never

existed.

• Creating data to refurbish or manufacture a part for which there are no

CAD data, or for which the data have become obsolete or lost.

• Inspection and/or Quality Control–Comparing a fabricated part to its

CAD description or to a standard item.
• Some bad features of a product need to be eliminated e.g., excessive wear might
indicate where a product should be improved.

• Strengthening the good features of a product based on long-term usage.

• Analyzing the good and bad features of competitors’ products.

• Exploring new avenues to improve product performance and features.

• Creating 3-D data from a model or sculpture for animation in games and
movies.

• Creating 3-D data from an individual, model or sculpture to create, scale, or

reproduce artwork.

• Architectural and construction documentation and measurement.

• Fitting clothing or footwear to individuals and determining the anthropometry of a

population.
• Generating data to create dental or surgical prosthetics, tissue
engineered body parts, or for surgical planning.

• Documentation and reproduction of crime scenes.

 REVERSE ENGINEERING
Reverse Engineering Hardware
• Contact Methods
• Noncontact Methods
• Destructive Method

Reverse Engineering Software

• Reverse Engineering Software Classification
• Reverse Engineering Phases
• Fundamental Reverse Engineering Operations
 Reverse engineering
• Reverse engineering (RE) is generally defined
as a process of analyzing an object or existing
system (hardware and software) to identify its
components and their interrelationships and
to investigate how it works to redesign or
produce a copy without access to the design
from which it was originally produced.
• RE hardware is used for RE data acquisition, which for
3-D modeling, is the collection of geometric data that
represent a physical object.

There are three main technologies for RE data acquisition:

• contact
• non contact and
• destructive

Outputs of the RE data acquisition process are 2-D

cross-sectional images and point clouds that define
the geometry of an object.
 RE software is employed to transform the RE data
produced by RE hardware into 3-D geometric models.

The final outputs of the RE data processing chain can be

one of two types of 3-D data:
(i) Polygons
Polygon models, which are normally in the STL, VRML, or
DXF format, are commonly used for rapid prototyping,
laser milling, 3-D graphics, simulation, and animations.
(ii) NURBS (nonuniform rational B-splines).
NURBS surfaces or solids are frequently used in
computer-aided design, manufacturing, and engineering
(CAD-CAM-CAE) applications.
• A 3D model of a pigeon which contains color
information, light sources (notice the
shadow) and animations
• https://giphy.com/gifs/3d-modeling-all3dp-3
ohs4pvxVGbSFUkIU0
There are hundreds of 3D file formats
 You often need to share your 3D
models with your clients,
collaborators and machines. Neutral
formats are perfect for this task.
 General Features of 3D File Formats

• Encoding geometry of the 3D model

• Storing appearance of the 3D model
• Saving scene information
• Encoding animations
 3D FILE FORMAT GEOMETRY: THE APPROXIMATE MESH

The fine triangular mesh is approximately encoding the surface geometry of this 3D model
(source: i.materialize)
 3D FILE FORMAT GEOMETRY 2: THE PRECISE MESH

An example of NURBS patches encoding a curved surface geometry precisely. The

red dots are the control points of the NURBS.
3D FILE FORMAT GEOMETRY : CONSTRUCTIVE SOLID GEOMETRY CSG
 3D File Formats: Appearance

3D FILE FORMAT APPEARANCE: TEXTURE MAPPING

3D FILE FORMAT APPEARANCE: FACE ATTRIBUTES
 3D FILE FORMAT ANIMATION: SKELETAL ANIMATION

• A cool and short video explaining how bones

and joints can be used to create basic
animations in Cinema4D.

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O6UGaK
C79KE
 3D File Formats: Scene information

Some 3D file formats have the capability to encode information about lights, as shown in this image.
 Reverse Engineering Hardware
Contact Methods:
 Mechanical arms,
 Coordinate Measurement Machines (CMM),
 Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines,
to digitize a surface.
There are two types of data collection techniques
employed in contact methods:
(i) point-to-point sensing with touch-trigger probes
(ii) analogue sensing with scanning probes
 Touch-trigger probing operation
Trigger probes measure discrete points...
• a trigger probe is in one of two states:
– seated when the stylus is not in contact
with the part
– unseated when the stylus is touching the
part
• a trigger signal is generated when the
probe changes from seated to unseated
• the trigger signal latches the machine
position to record the location of the
surface
• feature geometry is computed from a
best fit of discrete surface points
 Probing applications - factors
Manufacturers need a range of measurement
solutions.
Why?
· Features have different functions:
- for clearance or location
- form is not important
Þ Discrete point measurement
- for functional fits
- form is critical and must be controlled
Measured values
Þ Scanning

Best fit circle

Maximum inscribed
(functional fit) circle
• In the point-to-point sensing technique, a touch-trigger probe is
used that is installed on a CMM or on an articulated mechanical arm
to gather the coordinate points of a surface.

• A manually operated, articulated mechanical arm with a touch-

trigger probe allows multiple degrees of freedom (DOF) of
movement to collect the measurement points.

• A CMM with a touch-trigger probe can be programmed to follow

planned paths along a surface.

• A CMM provides more accurate measurement data compared to the

articulated arm.

• However, the limitation of using CMM is the lack of number of DOF

so that a CMM cannot be used to digitize complex surfaces in the
same way as an articulated arm.
• In analogue sensing, a scanning probe is used that is installed on a CMM
or CNC machine.

• The scanning probe provides a continuous deflection output that can be

combined with the machine position to derive the location of the
surface.

• When scanning, the probe stylus tip contacts the feature and then
moves continuously along the surface, gathering data as it moves.

• Therefore, throughout the measurement, it is necessary to keep the

deflection of the probe stylus within the measurement range of the
probe.

• The scanning speed in analogue sensing is up to three times faster than

in point-to-point sensing.
The advantages and disadvantages of contact methods
compared to noncontact methods are as follows.

Advantages:
(i) high accuracy,
(ii) low costs,
(iii) ability to measure deep slots and pockets,
(iv) insensitivity to color or transparency.
Disadvantages:
(i) slow data collection and
(ii) distortion of soft objects by the probe.
 Noncontact Methods
• In noncontact methods, 2-D cross-sectional images and
point clouds that represent the geometry of an object
are captured by projecting energy sources (light, sound,
or magnetic fields) onto an object; then either the
transmitted or the reflected energy is observed.
• The geometric data for an object are finally calculated
by using triangulation, time-of-flight, wave-interference
information, and image processing algorithms.
• There is no contact between the RE hardware and an
object during data acquisition.
• There are different ways to classify RE
hardware that uses noncontact RE methods
for data acquisition.

• These classifications are based on the sensor

technologies or data acquisition techniques
employed.
Classification of noncontact RE hardware
based on data acquisition techniques.

RE hardware classification–noncontact methods

• The advantages and disadvantages of noncontact methods
compared to contact methods are as follows:

Advantages:
(i) no physical contact;
(ii) fast digitizing of substantial volumes;
(iii) good accuracy and resolution for common applications;
(iv) ability to detect colors; and
(v) ability to scan highly detailed objects, where mechanical touch
probes may be too large to accomplish the task.

Disadvantages:
(i) possible limitations for colored, transparent, or reflective surfaces
and
(ii) lower accuracy.
 OPTICAL TECHNIQUES
• Triangulation is a method that employs locations and angles
between light sources and photosensitive devices (CCD–
charge-coupled device camera) to calculate coordinates.

• In a single camera system, a device transmits a light spot (or

line) on the object at a defined angle.

• A CCD camera detects the position of the reflected point (or

line) on the surface.

• In a double camera system, two CCD cameras are used.

 OPTICAL TECHNIQUES

• The principle of the triangulation method is shown in Figure.

• A high energy light source is focused and projected at a
prespecified angle (θ ) onto the surface of an object.
• A photosensitive device senses the reflection from the
illuminated point on the surface.
 Structured Light

• In structured-light techniques a light pattern is projected at a known angle

onto the surface of interest and an image of the resulting pattern, reflected by
the surface, is captured.
• The image is then analyzed to calculate the coordinates of the data point on
the surface.
• A light pattern can be (i) a single point; (ii) a sheet of light (line); and
(iii) a strip, grid, or more complex coded light
 A regular striped pattern is projected onto the ball. The rounded surface of the ball
distorts the stripes, and the distorted image is captured by a camera for analysis and
object reconstruction.
One of 3 sine wave pattern images of the type that are used for Phase
Shift structured light projections
Phase shifted projections and the resulting 3D construction.
Phase shifted projection patterns
 Interferometry
• The interferometry technique is well known in dimensional
inspection as well as in flatness and deformation
measurements in which structured-light patterns are
projected onto a surface to produce shadow effects.

• The light contours produced by effects are captured in an

image and analyzed to determine distances between the
lines.

• This distance is proportional to the height of the surface at

the point of interest, and so the surface coordinates can be
calculated.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3MlZGkPv1nY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VyePASErr5Q
 Time of Flight

•The principle behind all time-of-flight (TOF) implementations is to

measure the amount of time (t) that a light pulse (i.e., laser
electromagnetic radiation) takes to travel to the object and return.

• Because the speed of light (C) is known, it is possible to determine

the distance traveled.
•The distance (D) of the object from the laser would then be equal to
approximately one half of the distance the laser pulse traveled:
D = C × t/2.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uym4RA3hmW4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=99og8dFqI34
 Nonoptical Techniques
• Nonoptical approaches include acoustic (active
sonar) and microwave radar (radio detecting and
ranging) .

• The principle of these techniques for 3-D

reconstruction is measuring distances from the
sensing device to objects by measuring the time
delay between the transmitted and returned signals.
 Transitive Techniques
• CT is a nondestructive method that allows three-dimensional
visualization of the internals of an object.

• It provides a large series of 2-D X-ray cross-sectional images

taken around a single rotational axis.

• By projecting a thin X-ray or Y-ray beam through one plane of

an object from many different angles and measuring the
amount of radiation that passes through the object along
various lines of sight, a map of attenuation coefficients (a
density map or cross-sectional image) for the scanned surface
is reconstructed.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qbJiaQpNXYw
• Figure presents the CT working principle of
generating 2-D cross-sectional images.

Figure presents the CT working principle of generating 2-D cross-sectional images.

 Destructive Method
• The RE destructive method is useful for reverse
engineering small and complex objects in which both
internal and external features are scanned.

• A CNC milling machine exposes 2-D cross-sectional (slice)

images, which are then gathered by a CCD camera.

• The scanning software automatically converts the digital

bitmap image to edge detected points, as the part is
scanned.

• The company, CGI Inc., produces a destructive system and

calls this technology cross-sectional scanning.
• In RP processes, the part is built layer-by-layer based on 2-D
slice data.
• The destructive RE process is the reverse of this.
• To remodel the part, 2-D slice images of the part are gathered
by destroying the part layer-by-layer.
• The disadvantage of this method is the destruction of the object.

• However, the technique is fast.

• The accuracy is acceptable; the repeatability is ±0.0127 mm (CGI

systems).

• The layer thickness is from 0.0127–0.254 mm.

•
• The method allows capturing internal structures.

• In addition, a destructive system can work with any machinable

object, including parts made from aluminum alloys, plastics,
steel, cast iron, stainless steel, copper, and wood.
Figure :A procedure for data acquisition in a destructive RE system.
(a) The part and matrix combination is embedded in a contrasting colored plastic
matrix.
(b, c) The part is machined layer-by-layer to expose the cross-sectional images.
(d) The newly exposed surface of the part.
 Reverse Engineering Software
• There is no single RE software that can completely satisfy the requirements of
RE data processing and geometric modeling.

• Based on applications, RE software can be classified into the following

groups: Hardware control, CAD entity manipulation, polygon manipulation,
polygon and NURBS surface construction, 2-D scan image processing and 3-D
modeling, 3-D inspection, and NURBS surface and solid modeling.
• http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/point-
cloud
 Reverse Engineering Phases
• Different RE data processing Phases
• The required RE operations are then considered.
• The complete RE data processing chain, from scan data to
the final NURBS model, can be divided into four main
phases: points and images, polygon, curves, and NURBS
surfaces.

• These RE operations are necessary and are available with

the most commonly used commercial RE software such as
GSI Studio, Geomagics, CopyCAD, Rapidform, Polyworks,
Paraform, ICEM surf, and Magics
Figure: Presents the four phases of the RE data processing chain with the fundamental RE operations .
 Points and Images Phase
• In the points and images phase, scan data are registered, prepared, and
optimized for constructing 3-D polygon models.
• Outputs from the RE data acquisition process are 2-D cross-sectional
images or point clouds.
• RE systems that use transitive techniques such as CT and MRI provide a
large series of 2-D cross-sectional images of an object.
• Systems that use the remaining RE techniques such as laser triangulation,
TOF, and structured-light provide point cloud data.
Figure : A flowchart for transforming RE scan data into 3-D triangle mesh
models. Point cloud data as the input.
Figure : A flowchart for transforming RE scan data into 3-D triangle mesh models. 2-D scan
images as the input.
 Polygon Phase
• In this phase, polygon models are constructed.
• They are then manipulated and controlled to meet the
requirements of the applications.
• The resulting 3-D polygon models are directly employed for
applications such as rapid prototyping, 3-D graphics and
animations, or are used as reference data for creating CAD
entities (points, curves, and primitives) and constructing
NURBS surfaces for CAD-CAM-CAE applications.
• In many RE projects, especially RE of mechanical parts, CAD entities
are mainly used as the reference data for geometric modeling in
CAD packages.
• The CAD entities are constructed directly from point clouds or
indirectly from polygon models by manual editing, fitting, and
sectioning operations.
• They are finally imported into CAD packages to complete the
geometric modeling.
• For simple geometries, a limited number of reference points may
be sufficient to model the part using a CAD package , and contact
methods with mechanical touch probes are normally employed to
collect the data.
• Curves are necessary for creating complex parts with free-form
surfaces ; in this case, more point data are needed, and therefore,
noncontact methods are likely to be used for data acquisition.
(a) An RE model of a mechanical part with simple geometries (KUKA robot).
(b) An RE model of a complex part with free-form surfaces.
 NURBS Surface Phase
• NURBS surfaces are sometimes the ultimate RE output for CAD-CAM-CAE
applications.

• NURBS surfaces can be constructed based on the CAD entities extracted

from the curve phase or by using polygon meshes for surface fitting.

• A flowchart summarizing the steps in NURBS construction in a RE data

processing chain is presented in Flowchart.

• There are three approaches for creating NURBS surfaces: (i) manual
creation of NURBS from basic CAD entities; (ii)manual creation of NURBS
from patches; and (iii) automatic creation of NURBS from polygon models.

• Finally, constructed NURBS surfaces can be imported into CAD/CAM

systems to build NURB CAD solid models.
Different RE approaches for NURBS construction