BME411 - Physiological Fluid Mechanics

LECTURE NOTE
ON
Physiological Fluid Mechanics(BME 411)
CREDIT UNIT – 3
By
Professor Oyedepo, S.O & Mr Godwin
Course Outline
• Review of the Anatomy and Physiology of the cardiovascular system.

• Comparison between blood, air and water as fluids;
• Reynolds Transport Theorem; Poiseuille flow;
• Lubrication Theory;
• Energy requirements of the heart in blood pumping;
• Mechanics of breathing;
• Gas exchange;
• Introduction to bio-transport phenomena.
Relevant Text Books
1. Sawhney, G.S. (2007), Fundamentals of Biomedical Engineering,
New Age International, New Delhi, India
2. John D. Enderle, Susan M. Blanchard and Joseph D. Bronzino

(2005), Introduction to Biomedical Engineering (2 nd Ed.), Elsevier
Academic Press, Burlington, MA 01803, USA
3. John D. Enderle and Joseph D. Bronzino (2012), Introduction to
Biomedical Engineering (3rd Ed.), Elsevier Inc, Burlington, USA.
Lecture 1:Review of the Anatomy and Physiology of the cardiovascular system
• INTRODUCTION
• Biomedical engineering is an interdisciplinary field based in both engineering and the life
sciences.
• It is important for biomedical engineers to have knowledge about and be able to communicate
in both areas.
• Biomedical engineers must understand the basic components of the body and how they function
well enough to exchange ideas and information with physicians and life scientists.
• Two of the most basic terms and areas of study in the life sciences are anatomy and physiology.
 Anatomy refers to the internal and external structures of the body and their physical
relationships, whereas
 physiology refers to the study of the functions of those structures.

Introduction Contd.
• The anatomical terms described below are used by physicians, life scientists,
and biomedical engineers when discussing the whole human body or its major
parts.
• Correct use of these terms is vital for biomedical engineers to communicate

with health care professionals and to understand the medical problem of
concern or interest.
• While it is important to be able to use the general terms that describe the human
body, it is also important for biomedical engineers to have a basic understanding
of some of the more detailed aspects of human anatomy and physiology.
ANATOMICAL TERMS AND PLANES
 The Body
• The body is made up of the head, trunk and limbs.
The trunk consists of the neck, thorax (chest) and abdomen (belly).
The lower part of the abdomen is the pelvis.
This word is also used for the bones of the pelvis.
The lowest part of the pelvis or in other words the lowest part of the trunk is the
perineum.
The central axis of the trunk is the vertebral column, and the upper part of it
(cervical part) supports the head.
Anatomical Terms and Planes
• Anatomical Terms
Anatomical Terms Contd.
 The Upper Limb
The main parts of the upper limb are the arm, forearm and hand. Arm in strict
anatomical term means the upper arm (the part between the shoulder and
elbow) however, this word is commonly used for the whole of the upper limb.
 The Lower Limb
The main parts of the lower limb are the thigh, leg and foot. Here also leg in
strict anatomical form means the lower leg (the part between the knee and
foot) but the word is commonly used for whole of the lower limb.
 Human Anatomical Position
In order to describe the positions of structure in human anatomy, the body is
assumed to be standing upright with the feet together and the head and eyes looking
to the front with the arms straight by the side and the palms of the hands facing
forwards.
This is the anatomical position and structures are always described relative to one
another using this as the standard position.
This is also applicable even when the body is lying on the back to bed or when
lying on a dissecting table.
 The Median Plane
The ‘Median plane’ is an imaginary vertical longitudinal line through the
middle of the body from front to back, dividing the body into right and
left halves.
The ‘sagittal plane’ is any plane that is parallel to the median plane.
 The adjective ‘medial’ means nearer to the median plane, and ‘lateral’
means farther from it.
Thus, we can say in anatomical position, the little finger is on the medial
side of the hand and the thumb is on the lateral side, similarly the great
toe is on the medial side of the foot and the little toe on the lateral side.
 Coronal Planes
‘Coronal planes’ are imaginary planes at right angles to the median

plane. Horizontal or transverse planes are at right angles to both the
median and coronal planes.
The Planes
 The Anterior and Posterior
The terms ‘anterior’ and ‘posterior’ are used to indicate the front or back of the
body respectively.
Therefore, we have anterior and posterior view of the body or any part of body or
organ.
It is also used to describe the relationship of two parts. One is said to be anterior
or posterior to the other if it is closer to anterior or posterior to the body surface.
 Hence on the face, the nose is anterior to the ears and the ears are posterior to the
nose. Sometimes ‘ventral’ is used instead of posterior.
 Palmar and Dorsal Surfaces
In describing the hand, the term ‘palmar’ and ‘dorsal’ surfaces are used instead of
anterior and posterior.
Similarly in describing the foot, the ‘plantar’ and ‘dorsal’ surfaces, are used
instead of lower and upper surfaces.
 Proximal and Distal
 The terms ‘proximal’ and ‘distal’ describe the relative distances from the roots of the limbs.
 The arm is proximal to the forearm and the hand is distal to the forearm.
 The terms ‘superior’ and ‘inferior’ means nearer the upper or lower end of the body
respectively. For example, the nose is superior to the mouth and, inferior to the forehead. ‘
 Superficial’ means near the skin surface and ‘deep’ means farther away from the surface.
 The terms ‘internal’ and ‘external’ are used to describe the relative distance of a structure
from the centre of an organ or cavity.
TERMS RELATED TO MOVEMENTS
 Joint
Wherever two or more bones meet, it is known as a joint.
The degree of mobility varies from joint to joint.
Some joints have no movement (as in bones of skull), some have only slight
movement (as in vertebrae) and some are freely movable.
These movements are made in any of three planes as explained above.
 Different terms are used to describe the movements as explained below.

Terms Related to Movements Contd.
Flexation and Extension

 Flexion
‘Flexion’ is a movement that takes place in a sagittal plane. It is in fact folding

of the bones so as they may come nearer.
For example, flexion of the elbow joint brings the anterior surface of the
forearm to the anterior of the arm. It is usually an anterior movement but it can
be posterior movement also as in the case of the knee joint.
‘Extension’ means unfolding or straightening the joint. The movement usually

takes place in a posterior direction. However, flexion and extension of trunk
takes place in the coronal plane (lateral).
 Abduction and Adduction
‘Abduction’ of a limb is the movement away from the midline of the

body in the coronal plane.
‘Adduction’ of a limb is the movement towards the body in the

coronal plane.
In the fingers and toes abduction signifies the spreading of these parts
and adduction indicates the drawing together of these parts.
Abduction and Adduction

 Rotation
‘Rotation’ is a term applied to the movement of a part of the body

around its long axis. It can be.
(a) ‘Medial rotation’, which is the
movement that takes place in the anterior
surface of the part when facing medially.
(b) ‘Lateral rotation’ is the movement
that takes in the anterior surface of the
part facing laterally.
• Rotation Movement
(c) ‘Pronation of the forearm’ is medial
rotation of the forearm in such a manner that
the palm faces posteriorly.
(d) ‘Supination of the forearm’, is a lateral
rotation of forearm from the pronated position
so that palm of the hand comes to face
anteriorly.
• Rotation Movement
 Circumduction
‘Circumduction’, is the combination of four
movements which is in sequence of the
movements of flexion, extension, abduction
and adduction.
 Inversion
Inversion is the movement of the foot so that
the sole faces in a medial direction while
eversion is the opposite movement of the foot
MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
• Engineers and technicians working in medical field have to learn
enough physiology, anatomy and medical terminology to be able to
discuss problems intelligently with members of medical profession.
• Most medical words have been derived from Latin and Greek. Most
words consist of a root or base which is modified by a prefix or suffix
or both.
• The root is often abbreviated when the prefix or suffix is added.

Medical Terminology Contd.
HISTOLOGY
• All organs of the body are formed of tissues. A tissue is a collection of similar type of cells,
which are associated with some intercellular matrix (ground substance) governed by some
laws of growth and development.
• These cells are adopted to perform the same function or functions. Tissues are usually
classified into four main categories:
 Epithelial tissue
 Connective tissue
 Muscular tissue
 Nervous tissue
Histology Contd.
• Epithelium Tissue
 It is a lining or covering tissue.
 It is a sheet of cells that cover external surface or lines of internal

surface of the body.
It can be simple, pseudostratified or stratified epithelium.

Histology Contd.
• Connective tissue
 It has few cells and a large amount of non-living ground substance or

matrix. It can be:
(a) Connective tissue proper
(b) Skeletal tissue
(c) Fluid connective tissue

Histology Contd.
(a)Connective tissues proper
These tissues connect and anchor parts and give support to the body
and its organs.
For this reason, connective tissue is also known as supporting tissue.
 Connective tissue and skeletal tissue (cartilage and bone) have to

perform mechanical functions.
Histology Contd.
• The skeletal tissue includes the cartilages and the bones which form
the structure of the body skeleton.
• The bones and cartilages have considerable rigidity. This is a feature
which enables them to act as levers which is of great importance in the
movement of limbs.
• The bones and the cartilages also provide surfaces for the attachment
of muscles which provide force for the movement.
• Skeleton also protects the internal organs besides giving shape to the
body.
Histology Contd.
• Cartilages
 Cartilages are four types:
 Hyaline cartilage is bounded by fibrous membrane which is supplied by blood vessels and through
its nutritive substances diffuse into the cartilage. Hyaline cartilage occurs at the ends of the long
bones. It has great resistance wear and covers the articular surfaces of nearly all synovial joints.
 Yellow elastic cartilage has great elasticity due to the presence of large number of yellow elastic
fibers. It is found at the end of the nose and in the pinna of the ear.
 Calcified cartilage has its matrix impregnated with calcium salts. It is found in the pelvis and at the
head of the humerus and femur bones.
 White fibrous cartilage has a large number of white fibers. It is found in the discs of vertebral
hyaline cartilage and fibrocartilage found to calcify or even ossify in later life.
Histology Contd.
• Bone is a connective tissue in which the matrix is impregnated with
various salts which contribute to about two third of its weight.
• Bone is developed by two methods
 Membranous – By this method, the bone is developed directly from a

connective tissue membrane. For example, the bones of the vault of the skull
are developed rapidly by the membranous method in the embryo.
 Endochondral. By this method, a cartilagious model is laid down which

is replaced by bone. The long bones of the limbs are developed by
endochondral ossification.
Histology Contd.
• Fluid Connective Tissue
Blood is liquid connective tissue. It is red coloured fluid.
It consists of liquid portion which is called plasma and of three different kinds of
cells which are red blood corpuscles (erythrocytes), white blood corpuscles
(leucocytes) and platelets (thrombocytes).
Plasma is the liquid portion of the blood of which it forms about two-third and
contains about 80% of water.
 It is almost colourless clear fluid and contains an everchanging variety of
substances in solution and suspension.
Among the various substances present in the plasma are gases, absorbed food
material, inorganic salts, vitamins, metabolic waste products, hormones, anti-toxin
and a soluble blood protein called fibrinogen.
Histology Contd.
• Functions of blood
Transport of gases: RBC combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin
which breaks up and release oxygen in tissues. In tissues, RBC combines with
carbon dioxide to form carboxy haemoglobin which breaks up in the lungs to
release carbon dioxide for expiration.
Transport of food material: All the absorbed food circulated by the blood till
it is taken up and used by tissue cells.
Transport of substances: Many other substances such as enzymes, hormones

and anti toxins are transported by the blood to the places where they are
required.
Histology Contd.
• Functions of blood Contd.
 Defence against disease: This is effected in two ways. Firstly, the white blood
corpuscles feed on disease germs. Secondly blood possesses certain anti-toxins
which unite chemically with toxins and then neutralize them.
Equalization of the body temperature: As the blood circulate throughout the body,
it brings about an equalization of the body temperature by transferring heat from
one part to another.
Transport of metabolic wastes: The nitrogenous waste material is carried by the
blood to the liver where it is converted into urea. The later is now carried by the
blood to the kidney where it is removed out along with the urine.
Histology Contd.
• Functions of blood Contd.
• Clotting of blood: Blood has a soluble solution called fibrinogen which is converted into a mesh
work of fine threads of insoluble fibrins.
 In the mesh of fibrins, various types of corpuscles get entangled to form a blood clot which is also
known as coagulation.
 The conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin is affected by the action of an enzyme called thrombin.
 Free thrombin is not present in the blood but it is formed by its precursor (inactive enzyme
prothromboplastin) in presence of calcium ions.
 Calcium ions are present in blood but free thromboplastin is absent in blood. However, it is present
in other solid tissues. Hence when an injury occurs, thromboplastin is released by the injured
tissues. The thromboplastin then acts with calcium upon the prothrombin, changing it to thrombin.
The thrombin then acts upon the fibrinogen and converts it to fibrin.
PHYSIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS OF THE
BODY
• In our body, we have mechanical, electrical, chemical, thermal, pneumatic,
hydraulic and many other types of system.
• Each system communicates internally with other systems of the body and
externally it communicates with surroundings.
• We have a multi-level control system with its communication network which

organises these internal systems to perform many complex functions.
• We are able to sustain our lives due to organised operations of all these
internal systems and their various subsystems.
Physiological Systems of the Body
Contd.
• Anatomy is a study of the structure of the body and the relationship of
its constituents’ parts to each other
while
• Physiology is the study of function of these parts as a system.
Contd.
• The major functional physiological systems of the body are:
(a) The cardiovascular system
(b) The biochemical system
(c) The respiratory system
(d) The nervous system
(e) The excretory system
(f) The locomotor system
(g) The digestive system

Contd.
Communication with Energy and Mass Transfer with Surroundings

Physiological Systems of the Body Contd.
• The cardiovascular system
The cardiovascular system is a closed hydraulic system.
It has heart and blood vessels.
The heart works as a four-chamber pump.
The blood vessels are flexible and sometimes elastic tubing of varying
sizes.
The tubings change their sizes to control blood pressure, for example
arteries and arterioles.
Certain tubings act as reservoirs as they can control their volume as per
the requirements by a system of valves and variable resistance to flow
by constriction and dilation of the control blood tubings.
These tubings are veins and they take blood back to heart.
• The heart acts as two functionally isolated two stages pumps working in parallel.
• In first stage of each pump, the blood is taken into the reservoirs (atriums) from the
system and it is pumped into second stage reservoirs (ventricles).
• The action of the second stage is so well coordinated that the blood is pumped into the
system immediately when it is received from the first stage.
• The circuit of the blood is shown in the diagram below.
• Right side of the heart collects blood from the hydraulic system through veins and
pumps it to the lungs for oxygenation.
• The left side of the heart receives blood from the lungs (oxygenation system), and
pumps it into the main hydraulic system which is formed by the various organs of the
body.
• The heart rate and stroke volume are constantly changed to control the flow of the
blood in the system to meet the requirements of body parts.
• The blood flows in laminar manner.
• Superior vena cava is a large venous channel which collects blood from the upper half of the
body and delivers into the right atrium. It has no valve.
• The inferior vena cava (larger than superior vena cava) also opens into right atrium.
• It returns the blood to the heart from the lower half of the body.
• Since the blood in the inferior vena cava has to flow against gravity at times, special one-way
valves are located in it to prevent gravity from pulling blood against the direction of flow.
• The cardiac output flow rate and volume of the fluid at various places in the body are
important indicators for proper functioning of the system.
• Blood Circuit – Cardiovascular System
• Heart Works as Pump
• The biochemical system
• There are many chemical systems in our body that produce energy for the functioning of our
body.
• The energy is required for growth, body functions and body repairs. These chemical systems are
interconnected and these can be considered as the subsystems of a very efficient chemical factory.
• There is a single point intake of fuel (food, water and air) for this factory which is also source for
all chemical reactions which are taking place inside the body.
• This chemical factory also contains all monitory devices which are essential to carry out
necessary control for each chemical operation.
• The waste disposal system is also a part of this biochemical system.

• The respiratory system
• The respiratory system is a pneumatic system which ensures exchange of
gases by a biological process which is termed respiration.
• The body requires oxygen to combine with carbon, hydrogen and other
nutrients to produce heat and energy for sustenance of life.
• The entire process of taking inside oxygen from surroundings, transporting it
to body cells, removing the carbon dioxide from the cells and pushing out the
carbon dioxide into surrounding is called respiration.
• The respiratory system Contd.
• Air enters the lungs through air passages which include the nasal cavities, pharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles.
• The lungs are elastic bags located in a closed cavity, called the thorax.
• The diaphragm is a special bell-shaped muscle located at the bottom of the closed cavity.
When this diaphragm contracts, thorax is pulled downward, enlarging the closed cavity.
• The resultant increase in the volume of the closed cavity, a negative pressure (vacuum) is
created which is relieved by air entering the lungs from the surroundings.
• When the diaphragm moves up and reduces the volume of the thorax, the used air with
carbon dioxide is pushed out of the lungs.
• The respiratory system Contd.
• Oxygen is taken into the blood from the incoming air in about 300 million alveoli present in the
lungs.
• The oxygen and haemoglobins in blood form oxyhaemoglobins and carbon dioxide removed from
the blood is pushed out from lungs to the surroundings.
• An automatic control system maintains pneumatic pump operation (rate of contraction of

diaphragm) at a speed that is adequate to supply oxygen and to remove carbon dioxide as required
by body.
• It is also possible to accelerate or decelerate the operation of the pneumatic pump by manual
control whenever it is required. Automatic control returns whenever manual control is not applied.
• The Nervous system
• The nervous system consists of control and communication network which
coordinates the functions of all parts of the body.
• The brain is the central information processor and it works as a computer.
It has memory, power to compute, capability to make decisions and in numerous
input, and output channels for communication.
These channels form complicated networks with many interconnections (nodes)
which take signals from a large number of sensory devices (each sensory device
detects light, sound, pressure, heat and chemicals) to the brain (computer) for
analysis.
Some network is again used to take the output control signals from the brain to the
motor units of the muscles to carryout the desired motion or to exert force.
• The Nervous system Contd.
• The nerves form signal lines to carry signals (information) generated by the
nerve action potentials (sensory devices) to the brain and same signal lines are
used to carry control signals generated by the brain for the motor units.
• In addition to the control of the brain, a large number of simple decision-

making devices in the form of spinal reflexes are present in the body to
control independently some motor devices from certain sensory inputs.
• Example of this is the Portal system which consist of vein and capillary
network.
• The excretory system
• It consists of all organs that are responsible for the removal of waste products formed by
metabolism in the organisms.
The kidneys are the major excretory organs in man. The left kidney is located at slightly
higher level than right kidney, one on each side of the vertebral column.
 The kidneys have ‘bean’ shape and they are also called renes from which it is known as rent.
The renal tubules act as filters to remove from the blood (1) Excess water (2) Urea and uric
acid (3) Excess mineral salts (4) Yellow pigments from the bile.
 The mixture of these substances’ forms urine.
When the human kidneys fail to function, the urine accumulates in the blood resulting death
of the person from toxic poisoning.
• The locomotor system
• The system provides locomotion or movement to the body.
• Bones and joints play an important role for this system.
Statics and dynamics of the musculoskeletal system;
forces and motions acting in the skeletal system;
forces and movements within the body;
behaviour of bones, tendons, ligaments and cartilages for stress and strains; and
 prosthesis design etc.

• The digestive system
• It includes all organs that help in ingestion, digestion, absorption and
egestion of undigested food.
• It includes the alimentary canal and associated glands like liver and
pancreas etc.
The liver is the largest gland in the body.
It is located on the right side, just under the diaphragm.
It has irregular shape and it weighs 3 to 3 ½ pounds (1/40th the weight of
the body).
It secretes bile juice which plays an important role in metabolism of both
carbohydrate and protein.
Contd.
• The digestive system Contd.
• The other important gland is pancreas which secrete digestive pancreatic juice
and discharge it into intestine.
• This is done by exocrine part of the pancreas.
• The endocrine part secretes hormones like insulin.
• Insulin promotes glucose utilization, protein synthesis and the formation and
storage of neutral lipids.
• Insulin is given to the persons suffering from diabetes.

CARDIOVASCULAR PHYSIOLOGY
• Fundamental requirements of the circulatory system are to provide
adequate blood flow without interruption and to regulate blood flow
according to the various demands of the body.
• The contracting heart supplies the energy required to maintain the
blood flow through the vessels.
• The pressure gradient developed between the arterial and the venous
end of the circulation is the driving force causing blood flow through
the blood vessels.
• The energy is dissipated in the form of heat due to the frictional
resistance.
• Blood picks up oxygen in the lungs and nutrients in the intestine and
delivers them to the cells in all parts of the body.
CARDIOVASCULAR PHYSIOLOGY Contd.
• The circulating blood also removes cellular wastes and carbon dioxide from
the cells for excretion through the kidneys and the lung, respectively.
• The circulating blood also maintains the visceral organs, such as the heart,
the kidney, the liver, and the brain, at a constant temperature by convecting
the heat generated and dissipating the same through transfer across the skin.
• In the following section, we will concentrate on the mechanical aspects of

circulation.
• The Heart
• The human heart consists of four chambers whose function is to pump blood throughout
the body.
• The four chambers of the heart are schematically illustrated in Figure A1 below.
• The arrows indicate the direction of blood flow through the heart, which is ensured by
the presence of heart valves.
• The heart consists of two pumps in series circulating blood through the pulmonary and
systemic circulations, respectively.
• The right ventricle, a low-pressure pump, supplies the pulmonary circulation, whereas
the left ventricle, a high-pressure pump, supplies the systemic circulation.
Fig. A1: A schematic diagram of the four chambers of the heart and the heart valves
• The Heart Contd.
• The fundamental skeleton of the heart is formed by the four rings of interconnected
dense tissue, which secure the valves (Figure A2 below).
• The atrial chambers are attached to the superior surface of the annulus of the atrio-
ventricular valves, while the trunks of the aorta and the pulmonary artery are attached to
the semilunar valves.
• The right and left ventricles are attached below and around the circumference of the
fibrous skeleton and the interventricular septum is attached to the line of fusion between
the mitral and tricuspid valve rings.
The fibrous skeleton and the four chambers of the heart

• The Heart Contd.
• The right atrium receives venous blood from the superior and inferior vena cavae (SVC and IVC,
respectively).
• During ventricular relaxation, blood flows through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle.
• During ventricular contraction, blood is pumped through the pulmonary arteries into the capillaries
of the lung where carbon dioxide is excreted and oxygen absorbed from the air in the alveolar sac.
• The oxygenated blood returns to the heart via the pulmonary veins and is collected by the left
atrium.
• Blood then fills the left ventricle through the open mitral (bicuspid) valve during ventricular
relaxation. Upon subsequent ventricular contraction, blood is pumped through the aortic valve into
the systemic circulation via the aorta.
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
• All living organs require metabolic materials (eg, oxygen,
glucose, . . .) to feed their living cells and also, they need a
mechanism to remove waste products.
• Organ cells can exchange metabolic materials and waste
products by cellular transportation or diffusion.
• To transport these metabolic materials or waste products,
living organs have a complicated network of blood
vessels.
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION Contd.
• The network of blood vessels has three major parts:
the arteries, which carry blood and metabolic substrates from
the heart;
the capillaries, which have a main role of transporting
metabolic substrates and waste products to living tissues; and
the veins, which carry used blood (deoxygenated blood) back
to the heart.
 Fig. below shows a schematic of three major blood vessels: Artery,
capillaries and vein
The flow of blood from the left ventricle into the aorta to the peripheral regions of
the body and back to the right atrium is defined as the systemic circulation.
The blood circulation system consists of the heart, as a pump and the blood vessels.
The blood vessels are classified into five types;
 Arteries,
 Arterioles,
 Capillaries,
 Venules and
• Veins
The circulatory (or cardiovascular) system can be divided into three
subsystems;
 Pulmonary circulation: Pulmonary circulation arteries transfer deoxygenated

blood from the heart to the lung, and return oxygenated blood to the heart.
 Systemic circulation: Systemic circulation distributes oxygenated blood to all
of the body’s tissues, and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
 Coronary circulation: The heart’s function is unique since it can provide its
own blood flow. Coronary arteries generate a blood supply to the heart
muscles.
• Fig. below shows the cardiovascular system and its subsystems: Pulmonary,
systemic and coronary circulation.
• Schematic of blood flow to the visceral organs of systemic and pulmonary circulation is shown in Fig.
below
• The arteries and the arterioles carry the blood to the capillaries in the tissues
and the blood returns to the right atrium through the venules and the veins.
• Blood flow from the right ventricle into the lungs and back to the left atrium
is defined as the pulmonary circulation.
• The pulmonary artery distributes blood from the right ventricle into the lungs
and the blood returns to the left atrium via the pulmonary vein.
• Blood is pumped through the pulmonary and systemic circulations at a rate of
about 5.2 liters per minute (l/m) under normal conditions.
• The driving force for propelling blood through any segment of the circulatory
system is the pressure gradient across the segment.
• Hagen–Poiseuille model, a basic relationship between the pressure difference
and the flow rate can be determined if we consider the time averaged values.
• If Δp is the time averaged pressure difference across an arterial segment (i.e.,
difference between mean arterial pressure at the aortic root and the venous
pressure in the right atrium, in the case of systemic circulation) and Q is the
time averaged flow rate (i.e., cardiac output),
• then from basic fluid mechanics, we have the relationship
(1)
• From above equation, R is the resistance to the flow of blood in that segment.
• Under these conditions, the resistance to blood flow is predominantly due to the
viscous shear stresses.
• The resistance computed using units of pressure in mm Hg(millimeters of

mercury) and flow rate in cm3/s in Equation above is referred to as Peripheral
Resistance Units (PRUs).
• For example, in the normal systemic circulation, if the mean pressure difference
between the systemic arteries and the veins is about 100 mmHg and the flow
rate through the systemic circulation is about 100 cm 3/s, the resistance is 1 PRU.
• The relationship between the flow rate and the pressure gradient is derived
for steady flow of a viscous fluid through a rigid cylindrical pipe.
• The Hagen–Poiseuille flow relationship was given by the equation

(2)
• From Equation (1) and Equation (2), we get
(3)
• From Equation (3), it can be observed that the resistance to blood flow is inversely proportional to the fourth
power of tube radius.
• Thus, small changes in the radius of arteries and arterioles will significantly alter the vascular resistance.
• This is important since one of the characteristics of blood vessel walls is that they are very responsive to
stimulation.
• With sympathetic stimulation, the tone of the vessel walls increases, causing a decrease in diameter and,
thereby, a significant increase in resistance to the flow of blood.
• On the other hand, with sympathetic inhibition, the tone of the vessels decreases resulting in an increase in
the vessel diameter and a corresponding decrease in flow resistance.
• Thus, sympathetic stimulation or inhibition is effectively used in controlling the flow rate of blood through
any region of the body and this control is affected at the arteriolar level.
• For example, an increase in vessel diameter of just 5% would produce a reduction in resistance of over 21%.
• The ratio of change in volume to a change in pressure gives a measure of
the distensibility of the blood vessel.
• In practice, the increase in volume normalized to the initial volume is

used to define the volumetric strain of the vessel. The definition for
vascular compliance, C, is given by
(4)
• where Δ𝛎 is the change in volume and 𝛎 is the initial volume.

• It should be noted that the vascular system provides two essential services: distribution and
exchange.
 In the distribution function, the vascular system transports blood to and away from body organs.
 In the exchange function, gases, electrolytes and nutrients are exchanged between blood and living
tissues.
 Additionally, some vessels, such as small arteries and arterioles, create resistance to regulate blood
pressure.
 Capacitance is another minor function in the vascular system to regulate blood pressure and blood
volume.
 Table 1 summarized the sizes and functions of human blood vessels.

Table 1: Summary of the sizes and functions of human blood vessels
• The total blood volume of the body for an adult (woman 70 kg) is about 5 L and
its distribution is not uniform among organs.
• The distribution percentage of blood volume in systemic, pulmonary and hearth

circulation is ~85%, ~10% and ~5%, respectively.
• These percentages are not constant and the blood circulation system can be
adjustable, for instance the pulmonary circulation can be much higher than 10% in
some cases.
• The majority of the blood volume in the cardiovascular system resides in the
systemic circulation veins (~3.2 L).
• Table 2 shows the distribution of the blood volume in an adult woman. For a 70
kg man, we have to add 10% to values.
Table 2: Distribution of the Blood Volume in an adult woman
• The blood pressures in the systemic circulation are higher than those in the pulmonary
circulation.
• According to Poiseuille’s law, the resistance in a fluidic system depends on the pressure
drop and volumetric flow rate, also it is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the
tube diameter.
• But the steepest pressure gradient occurs for precapillary arterioles which have bigger
diameters in comparison to capillaries.
• This feature occurs because of aggregate resistance (total resistance for parallel resistors).
• Table 3 shows the pressure drop for arteries and veins in the systemic and pulmonary
circulation.
• Table 3: Pressure drop for arteries and veins in the systemic and pulmonary
circulation
Chapter 2: Fluid Mechanics and Biofluids
Principles
• INTRODUCTION
• In general, a material can be characterized as a fluid if it deforms continuously under the
action of a shear stress produced by a force, which acts parallel to the line of motion.
• In other words, a fluid is a material that cannot resist the action of a shear stress.
• Conversely, a fluid at rest cannot sustain a shearing stress.
• For our applications, we will treat a fluid as a continuum (i.e., it is a homogeneous

material) even though both liquids and gases are made up of individual molecules.
• On a macroscopic scale, however, fluid properties, such as density, viscosity, etc., are
reasonably considered to be continuous.
Introduction Contd.
• Fluid mechanics is a branch of mechanics that studies fluids and the forces
on them.
• Fluid mechanics examines fluids in two subsystems:
static (fluid statics) and
Dynamic (fluid dynamic).
Fluids, and especially air and water, have a major role in the life of creatures
and ~65% of our body is composed of water.
Introduction Contd.
• Blood transports fuel and energy to tissues to maintain their usual activities.
• An understanding of biofluid mechanics and its aspects helps us to find or predict the solutions
for disorders or diseases.
• To realize the role of biofluids research, let us imagine a hospital without equipment and tools
related to biofluids, such as syringes, serums, surgery equipment, hemodialysis machines,
blood pressure meters, ECG, stents, angiography and balloon therapy equipment, artificial lung
and oxygenation systems, defibrillators, biosensors and pulse oximeters, ultrasound blood flow
detectors, blood test equipment, etc.
• Without these instruments and tools, our hospitals would be a building with several rooms with
minimum health care and a huge rate of death just like hospitals in the middle ages.
• This imagining is the best explanation for the advantage of biofluid mechanics, goals and
scope.
Dimensions and Units
• In engineering fields and especially fluid mechanics, dimensions and units are a
fundamental tool to explain the characterization of phenomena.
• A dimension is a measure of a physical variable by fundamental quantities without

numerical value, such as distance, time, mass, temperature, etc., but a unit is a
particular way to assign a measurement with numerical value to the dimension.
Examples:
 Length (L) is a dimension, but it is measured in units of meters (m) or feet (ft).
 Time (T) is a dimension, but it is measured in units of seconds (s).

 Mass (M) is a dimension, but it is measured in units of kilograms (kg) or pounds
(lb).
Dimensions and Units
• In biofluid mechanics, the main dimensions are length, mass, time and temperature.
• Two units are in use today, the international or metric (SI) system and the imperial
(British) system.
• The SI is very common and most of the countries in the world use the SI system.
• Unfortunately, the difference between SI and imperial leads to calculation errors for
both practicing engineers and students due to missing or improper conversion factors.
• The simple example for difference is in temperature units.
• In the SI system, the unit of temperature is Kelvin (K) (or centigrade (oC)) and in the
imperial system it is Fahrenheit (oF).
Dimensional Analysis
• Dimensional analysis is an analytical method between different physical
quantities and units of measure to understand their relationship by using
fundamental dimensions, such as Mass (M), Time (T), Length (L) and
Temperature (θ).
• In simple words, any physical equation must have the same dimension on
both sides (left and right).
• This application is called dimensional analysis.
• If you want to derive an equation, the best method to check any correction
of the equation is dimension analysis.
Dimensional Analysis Contd.
Examples:
 The unit of speed or velocity is meters per second (m/s) and its
dimensional analysis is
•
 The unit of acceleration is meters per second squared (m/s 2) and its dimensional
analysis is
 The unit of force is Newton (in SI) and it is equal to mass (M) multiplied
by acceleration
Fluid Kinematics

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LECTURE NOTE

• Review of the Anatomy and Physiology of the cardiovascular system.

2. John D. Enderle, Susan M. Blanchard and Joseph D. Bronzino

 physiology refers to the study of the functions of those structures.

• Correct use of these terms is vital for biomedical engineers to communicate

• The body is made up of the head, trunk and limbs.

The lower part of the abdomen is the pelvis.

This word is also used for the bones of the pelvis.

 The Lower Limb

‘Coronal planes’ are imaginary planes at right angles to the median

Wherever two or more bones meet, it is known as a joint.

The degree of mobility varies from joint to joint.

These movements are made in any of three planes as explained above.

 Different terms are used to describe the movements as explained below.

Flexation and Extension

‘Flexion’ is a movement that takes place in a sagittal plane. It is in fact folding

‘Extension’ means unfolding or straightening the joint. The movement usually

‘Abduction’ of a limb is the movement away from the midline of the

‘Adduction’ of a limb is the movement towards the body in the

Abduction and Adduction

‘Rotation’ is a term applied to the movement of a part of the body

• The root is often abbreviated when the prefix or suffix is added.

 It is a lining or covering tissue.

 It is a sheet of cells that cover external surface or lines of internal

It can be simple, pseudostratified or stratified epithelium.

 It has few cells and a large amount of non-living ground substance or

(a) Connective tissue proper

(b) Skeletal tissue

(c) Fluid connective tissue

For this reason, connective tissue is also known as supporting tissue.

 Connective tissue and skeletal tissue (cartilage and bone) have to

• Bone is developed by two methods

 Membranous – By this method, the bone is developed directly from a

 Endochondral. By this method, a cartilagious model is laid down which

Transport of substances: Many other substances such as enzymes, hormones

• We have a multi-level control system with its communication network which

(a) The cardiovascular system

(b) The biochemical system

(c) The respiratory system

(d) The nervous system

(e) The excretory system

(f) The locomotor system

(g) The digestive system

Communication with Energy and Mass Transfer with Surroundings

• The waste disposal system is also a part of this biochemical system.

• An automatic control system maintains pneumatic pump operation (rate of contraction of

• In addition to the control of the brain, a large number of simple decision-

 The mixture of these substances’ forms urine.

• Bones and joints play an important role for this system.

Statics and dynamics of the musculoskeletal system;

forces and motions acting in the skeletal system;

forces and movements within the body;

 prosthesis design etc.

• This is done by exocrine part of the pancreas.

• The endocrine part secretes hormones like insulin.

• Insulin is given to the persons suffering from diabetes.

• In the following section, we will concentrate on the mechanical aspects of

The fibrous skeleton and the four chambers of the heart

 Pulmonary circulation: Pulmonary circulation arteries transfer deoxygenated

• The resistance computed using units of pressure in mm Hg(millimeters of