Class 4

Hashes and Message Digest
• Hash is also called message digest

• One-way function: d=h(m) but no h’(d)=m
– Cannot find the message given a digest
• Cannot find m1, m2, where d1=d2

• Arbitrary-length message to fixed-length
digest
• Randomness
– any bit in the outputs ‘1’ half the time
– each output: 50% ‘1’ bits
Birthday Problem
• How many people do you need so that the probability of
having two of them share the same birthday is > 50% ?
• Random sample of n birthdays (input) taken from k (365,
output)
• kn total number of possibilities
• (k)n=k(k-1)…(k-n+1) possibilities without duplicate birthday
• Probability of no repetition:
– p = (k)n/kn  1 - n(n-1)/2k
• For k=366, minimum n = 23
• n(n-1)/2 pairs, each pair has a probability 1/k of having the
same output
• n(n-1)/2k > 50%  n>k1/2
How Many Bits for Hash?
• m bits, takes 2m/2 to find two with the same
hash
• 64 bits, takes 232 messages to search
(doable)
• Need at least 128 bits
Using Hash for Authentication
• Alice to Bob: challenge rA
• Bob to Alice: MD(KAB|rA)
• Bob to Alice: rB
• Alice to Bob: MD(KAB|rB)
• Only need to compare MD results
Using Hash to Encrypt
• One-time pad with KAB

– Compute bit streams using MD, and K
• b1=MD(KAB), bi=MD(KAB|bi-1), …
  with message blocks

– Add a random 64 bit number (aka IV) b1=MD(KAB|
IV), bi=MD(KAB|bi-1), …
General Structure of Secure Hash Code
• Iterative compression function

– Each f is collision-resistant, so is the resulting hashing
MD5: Message Digest Version 5
input Message
Output 128 bits Digest
• Until recently the most widely used hash algorithm

– in recent times have both brute-force & cryptanalytic
concerns
• Specified as Internet standard RFC1321
MD5 Overview
MD5 Overview
1. Pad message so its length is 448 mod 512
2. Append a 64-bit original length value to message
3. Initialise 4-word (128-bit) MD buffer (A,B,C,D)
4. Process message in 16-word (512-bit) blocks:
– Using 4 rounds of 16 bit operations on message block &
buffer
– Add output to buffer input to form new buffer value
5. Output hash value is the final buffer value
Padding Twist
• Given original message M, add padding bits
“10*” such that resulting length is 64 bits less
than a multiple of 512 bits.
• Append (original length in bits mod 264),
represented in 64 bits to the padded message
• Final message is chopped 512 bits a block
MD5 Process
• As many stages as the number of 512-bit
blocks in the final padded message
• Digest: 4 32-bit words: MD=A|B|C|D
• Every message block contains 16 32-bit words:
m0|m1|m2…|m15
– Digest MD0 initialized to:
A=01234567,B=89abcdef,C=fedcba98, D=76543210
– Every stage consists of 4 passes over the message
block, each modifying MD
• Each block 4 rounds, each round 16 steps
Processing of Block mi - 4 Passes
mi MDi
ABCD=fF(ABCD,mi,T[1..16])
A B C D
ABCD=fG(ABCD,mi,T[17..32])
ABCD=fH(ABCD,mi,T[33..48])
ABCD=fI(ABCD,mi,T[49..64])
+ + + +
MD i+1
Different Passes...
Each step t (0 <= t <= 79):
• Input:
– mt – a 32-bit word from the message
With different shift every round
– Tt – int(232 * abs(sin(i))), 0<i<65
Provided a randomized set of 32-bit patterns, which
eliminate any regularities in the input data
– ABCD: current MD
• Output:
– ABCD: new MD
MD5 Compression Function
• Each round has 16 steps of the form:
a = b+((a+g(b,c,d)+X[k]+T[i])<<<s)
• a,b,c,d refer to the 4 words of the buffer,
but used in varying permutations
– note this updates 1 word only of the buffer
– after 16 steps each word is updated 4 times
• where g(b,c,d) is a different nonlinear
function in each round (F,G,H,I)
MD5 Compression Function
Functions and Random Numbers
• F(x,y,z) == (xy)(~x  z)
– selection function
• G(x,y,z) == (x  z) (y ~ z)
• H(x,y,z) == xy z
• I(x,y,z) == y(x  ~z)
Secure Hash Algorithm
• Developed by NIST, specified in the Secure
Hash Standard (SHS, FIPS Pub 180), 1993
• SHA is specified as the hash algorithm in the
Digital Signature Standard (DSS), NIST
General Logic
• Input message must be < 264 bits
– not really a problem
• Message is processed in 512-bit blocks
sequentially
• Message digest is 160 bits
• SHA design is similar to MD5, but a lot
stronger
Basic Steps
Step1: Padding
Step2: Appending length as 64 bit unsigned
Step3: Initialize MD buffer 5 32-bit words
Store in big endian format, most significant bit in low address
A|B|C|D|E
A = 67452301
B = efcdab89
C = 98badcfe
D = 10325476
E = c3d2e1f0
Basic Steps...
Step 4: the 80-step processing of 512-bit blocks
– 4 rounds, 20 steps each.
Each step t (0 <= t <= 79):
– Input:
• Wt – a 32-bit word from the message
• Kt – a constant.
• ABCDE: current MD.
– Output:
• ABCDE: new MD.
Basic Steps...
• Only 4 per-round distinctive additive
constants
0 <=t<= 19 Kt = 5A827999
20<=t<=39 Kt = 6ED9EBA1
40<=t<=59 Kt = 8F1BBCDC
60<=t<=79 Kt = CA62C1D6
SHA-1 verses MD5
• Brute force attack is harder (160 vs 128 bits
for MD5)
• Not vulnerable to any known cryptanalytic
attacks (compared to MD4/5)
• A little slower than MD5 (80 vs 64 steps)
– Both work well on a 32-bit architecture
• Both designed as simple and compact for
implementation
Revised Secure Hash Standard
• NIST have issued a revision FIPS 180-2
• adds 3 additional hash algorithms
• SHA-256, SHA-384, SHA-512
• designed for compatibility with increased
security provided by the AES cipher
• structure & detail is similar to SHA-1
• hence analysis should be similar

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Hashes and Message Digest

• Hash is also called message digest

• Cannot find m1, m2, where d1=d2

• One-time pad with KAB

  with message blocks

• Iterative compression function

Output 128 bits Digest

• Until recently the most widely used hash algorithm

• ABCDE: current MD.

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