DATA COLLECTION

METHODS
DATA TYPES & THEIR COLLECTION METHOD
 COLLECTION OF
DATA

PRIMARY SECONDARY

DIRECT PERSONAL INTERVIEW UNPUBLISHED

PUBLISHED SOURCE
TELEPHONE INTERVIEW SOURCE
MAILED QUESTIONNAIRE
QUESTIONNAIRE FILLED BY ENUMERATORS GOVERNMENT PUBLICATION
PUBLICATION OF INTERNAL BODIES
SEMI OFFICIAL PUBLICATION
REPORT OF COMMITTEES AND COMMISSIONS
PRIVATE PUBLICATION
• JOURNAL AND NEWSPAPER
• RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS
• PROFESSIONAL TRADE BODIES
• ANNUAL REPORT OF JOINT STOCK COMPANIES
• ARTICLES, MARKET REVIEWS AND REPORTS
Types of data

 Primary data are those which are collected for the first time and are original in
character

 Primary data means the raw data (data without fabrication or not tailored data)
which has just been collected from the source and has not gone any kind of statistical
treatment like sorting and tabulation. The term primary data may sometimes be used
to refer to first hand information.

 Data which has already been collected by someone, may be sorted, tabulated and has
undergone a statistical treatment. It is fabricated or tailored data. Such type of data is
known as Secondary Data.
Primary data: Collection Methods

 Observation Method
 Direct personal interview
 Telephone interview
 Mail questionnaire
 Questionnaire filled by enumerates (Schedules)
Observation Method
 Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection, when
it serves a formulated research purpose,
is systematically planned and recorded, and
is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability
 In this method, the investigator gets the first hand data for the study area.
 It includes recognizing and noting of facts or occurrences, often involving some sort of measurement.

 It can be conducted in various types:

 Structured and non-structured
 Participant and non-participant
Observation Method: Advantages
 Subjective biases may be eliminated, if observation is done accurately.
 Information relates to current state of affairs and what is currently happening.
 This method is independent of respondent’s willingness to respond (to some extent)

Disadvantages
 A time consuming and expensive method.
 A limited amount of information may be available.
 Unforeseen factors may interfere with the observation task
 Types of Observation Method

Structured vs. Unstructured Observation

 In this carefully define units of observation, style of recording the observed information, standardized condition
of observation.

Participant vs. Non-participant Observation

Participant – Observer becomes a part of the setting being observed

Disguised vs. Non-disguised (controlled and uncontrolled)

Disguised – Participants in observation do not know that they are being observed

Any combination
Direct Personal Interview

 A personal interview survey, also called as a face-to-face survey, is a

survey method that is utilized when a specific target population is
involved. The purpose of conducting a personal interview survey is to
explore the responses of the people to gather more and deeper
information.
Advantages

• Accurate screening
• Keep focus
• Capture emotions and behaviors
• More information and in greater depth can be obtained compared to other
methods
• Greater flexibility – provides interviewer with opportunity to restructure
questions
• Personal information can be obtained
• Possibility of spontaneous responses and thus more honest responses
Disadvantages

• High cost survey or Comparatively expensive method

• Quality of data by interviewer
• Manual data entry
• Limit sample size
• Time consuming
• Prone to Interviewer bias
• More prone to Respondent bias in responses due to social interaction naturel.
• Establishing rapport between interviewer-interviewee, to facilitate free and frank
responses, is challenging
Types of Interview Method

Structured interviews
 the use of a set of predetermined questions and highly standardized techniques of
recording
 the interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid procedure, asking questions in
a form and order prescribed

Unstructured interviews
 there is a flexibility of approach to questioning
 do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardized techniques of
recording information
Telephone Interview

 Telephone interview is a data collection method when the interviewer

communicates with the respondent on the telephone in accordance with
the prepared questionnaire.
 Usually, standardised questionnaires with closed-ended questions are
recommended for this kind of questioning.
Telephone Interview

Advantages
Can lead to relatively high response rates in specific markets
Interviews can be completed fairly quickly
Can be used to reach samples over a wide geographic area
Cost effective
More control in targeting specific types of samples vs. other methods (i.e.
face-to-face surveys in public)
Provided that the questions are properly formulated and the interview is
professionally administered, the quality of data generated can be high vs.
other methods (e.g. surveys delivered over mobile devices, etc.).
Telephone Interview

Disadvantages
Typically, questions cannot be of a complex nature.
Unlike a face-to-face interview or focus group, interviewers – no matter
how experienced and skilled – cannot see body language.
When the target audience is available through an online panel, telephone
interviewing often appears as a much more expensive alternative.
Questionnaires

1. Popular in major studies

2. Briefly – a Questionnaire is sent (usually by post/email/online) to the persons concerned with a
request to answer the questions and return the Questionnaire
3. A Questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed in a definite order on a form
4. The Questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions
and write down the reply in the space provided. A covering letter is also sent with the
questionnaire. A stamped self addressed envelope is also attached.
Questionnaires: Advantages

 Low cost in term of time, labour and wealth – even when the universe is large and is
widespread

 Free from interviewer bias

 Respondents have adequate time to think through their answers

 Respondents who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently

 Large samples can be used or the field of inquiry is wide
Questionnaires: Disadvantages

 Low rate of return

 Respondents need to be educated person and cooperative
 Inbuilt inflexibility (Supplementary questions cannot be asked as questions are fixed)
 Possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of items
 This method is slow
 Its response is uncertain
 If questionnaire is tough, it may not be responded
 Major aspects of a Questionnaire
Form of Questions:

Closed Ended
Open Ended

Sequence of Questions
Demographics
Subject matter related
difficult questions

Question Formulation and Wording

Simple
Easy
To the point
Schedules
 In this method, list of questions or schedules are sent to the informants
through the enumerators.
 They read the questions to the informants and record their answers on the
same schedules.
 At first, enumerator explains the aims and objectives of the enquiry and
asks them for co-operation.
Schedules sent through enumerators

Advantages
 Information can be got even from uneducated persons.
 This information is more reliable and correct.
 It covers wide area.
 It is unaffected by the personal bias of the investigators.
 There are fewer chances of non-responses as enumerator’s visits
personally.
Schedules sent through enumerators

Disadvantages
 It is costly because enumerators have to be paid.
 It is time consuming as every informant is visited.
 It requires trained enumerators, which are not easily available.
 The personal bias of enumerator may lead to wrong conclusions.
 It can only be used by big organizations.
Difference between a Questionnaire and schedule
Point of Difference Questionnaire Schedule

1. Physical Appearance No Yes

2. Cost Less More

3. Non Response High Low

4. Suitable for Educated and Literate All

5. Geographical Area Large Small

6. Speed Slow Fast

7. Risk of Wrong Information High Risk Low Risk

8. Success Lies Quality Honesty
Drafting a questionnaire
1.Covering Letter
2.Number of questions
3.Personal questions should be avoided
4.The question should be simple and clear
5.The question should be arranged logically
6.Instruction to the information
7.The question may be divided or subdivided under different heads and sub
heads
8.Multiple choice question
Drafting a questionnaire
9. Simple alternative question : For example- Are you employed?
Yes/No
10. Specific information question :For example-In which class do you read?
11. Open question-These type of questions need to be minimum. For
example-How will you solve the wage problem in your industry?
12. The question should be directly related to the point
13. Avoidance of leading question :
Avoidance of question like why do you like Broke Bond Tea instead two
question can be framed to inquire like – “Which brand of tea do you take?” &
“Why do you prefer?”
Drafting a questionnaire
14. Attractive layout
15. Avoidance of question of calculation
16. Avoidance of certain debatable question:
Example- Do you tell lie?
17. Cross check
-For example questions on age and date of birth is a crosscheck.
18. Question on familiar topic
19. Pre testing of questionnaire
Sample Questionnaire
Sample Questionnaire
Sample Questionnaire
Sample Questionnaire
Sample Questionnaire
Sample Questionnaire
 Experiments

 a test under controlled conditions that is made to demonstrate a known truth,

 examine the validity of a hypothesis, or to determine the efficacy of something

previously untried

 a treatment, procedure, or program is intentionally introduced and a result or

outcome is observed
Exercise

Make a questionnaire's based on your understanding on assignment 1 ( case study of sustainable neighborhood)
and assignment 2 (critical analysis of master plan).
SECONDARY DATA
Secondary Data

…. data which has been collected by individuals or agencies for purposes

other than those of our particular research study.
 Is often:
 Historical
 Already assembled
 Sometimes it is also called ‘desk research’
Nature of Secondary data
 No research study should be undertaken without a prior search of
secondary sources

Should be conducted
 Early in the problem investigation stage and
 Prior to any organized collection of information from primary sources
Rationale for Secondary data

Play a substantial role in exploratory

phase
1. Defining problem and formulating hypotheses
2. Planning the collection of primary data
3. Defining the population and selecting the sample
4. May help in develop an approach to study the problem
5. May help in formulate appropriate research design
2 major categories of sources

1.Internal sources:

2.External sources
 Internal Sources

Internal and proprietary data is more descriptive

 Accounting information
 Sales information
 Backorders
 Customer complaints
 External Sources

Created, recorded, or generated by an entity other than the researcher’s organization

 Trade associations  Books and periodicals

 Newspapers and journals  Government sources
 Libraries  Commercial sources
 The Internet  Media sources
 Vendors
 Producers
Secondary Data Search and Evaluation Process
Search for Identify information required based on
secondary data research objectives

External sources
Internal sources  Government
 Internal records  Academic literature
 Feedbacks  Practitioner sources
 Internal databases  General Media
 Standardized sources
 Professional agencies
Evaluate
 Who
 What
 Why
 How
 When Identify information required
 Consistency from primary sources
Evaluating Secondary Data

No Does the data help address Consult the original data if

specified research questions? possible
Yes Yes
Does the value of information No
Does the data apply to the

STOP
STOP No
exceed the cost of its
population of interest?
acquisition?
Yes Yes
No
No Does the data cover the time Is the risk of bias high?
period of interest?
Yes
No Yes
Can the data be verified?
Are the definitions, data
No Yes
Can data collection methods and Yes
be revised? measurement systems known Use the data
and acceptable?
Benefits

 Easy accessibility
 Relative inexpensive
 Quick sourcing
 Sometimes more accurate than primary data
 Some type of information available only through secondary sources
 Enhances quality of primary data
 Increased familiarity with problem
 Better understanding of concepts, data, terminology
Issues with secondary data

 Need to evaluate the quality of both the source of the data and the data
itself.
 The main problems may be categorized as follows:
 Definition and reference sets
 Measurement Errors
 Source bias
 Reliability
 Time scale
Uses of Secondary Data

 Identify problem
 Better define problem
 Develop an approach to the problem
 Formulate appropriate research design
 Answer certain research questions and test some hypothesis
 Interpret primary data more meaningfully
 Monitoring environment
Other Methods of Data Collection

1. Warranty Cards
2. Distributor or Store Audits
3. Pantry Audits
4. Consumer Panels
5. Mechanical Devices
6. Depth Interviews
7. Content Analysis
8. Projective Tests
Measurement

…is the assignment of numerals to systems

according to scientific laws
Measurement

 Measurement is the process of assigning numbers to

objects or observations (quantification) as per certain pre-
specified rules

 1 – 1 correspondence between numbers and characteristics

 Standardized rules for assigning numbers

 Uniform application of rules

 No changes in rules over object or time

Scale

…continuum on which measured objects are

located
Scale: Characteristics

1.
Description
 Unique labels (Descriptors) that are used to designate each value on the scale

 All scales should possess description

2. Order
 Defines relative size and position of the descriptors on the scale

Denoted by
 Greater than
 Less than
 Equal to
3. Distance

 Defines absolute differences between the scale

descriptors

 May be expressed in units

 Also called interval

 Notice that if a scale has distance, it also have order

4. Origin

 Defines that the scale has a true zero point, unique and fixed beginning
where the characteristic measured has zero value

 Scales having origin will also possess distance and order

DATA CLASSIFICATION

Measurement scales
(or types of data):ways to categorize
different types of variables

Ordinal : Based on order

Nominal : used for or rank. The best way to
labelling variables, determine central
without any quantitative tendency on a set of Scalar
value. Mode is the only ordinal data is to use the
measure of central mode or median; the
tendency applicable. mean cannot be defined
from an ordinal set.

Ratio : tell us the exact

Interval :numeric scales value between units.
in which we know not These variables can be
only the order, but also meaningfully added,
the exact differences subtracted, multiplied,
between the values. divided (ratios).
• Central tendency can be measured by mode, median, or mean; measures of dispersion, such
• Central tendency can be measured by mode, median, or
as standard deviation and coefficient of variation can also be calculated from ratio scales.
mean; standard deviation can also be calculated.
• the problem with interval scales: they don’t have a “true
• have an absolute zero–which allows for a wide range of both descriptive and inferential
zero.”
statistics to be applied
Nominal scales
 Crudest of measurement scales

 “Nominal” stands for “NAME” of category

 Numbers are used simply as labels for group or classes

 Classifies entities into categories where no order is implied

 Often referred to as a categorical scale

 It is a system of classification and does not place the entity along a continuum.

 It involves a simply count of the frequency of the cases assigned to the

various categories

 Nominal scale provide convenient ways to keeping track of people, objects, and
events.
Ordinal scales

 involve the ranking of items along the continuum of the characteristic being scaled

 Data elements may be ordered according to their relative size or quality.

 there is no information about the interval between any two items on scale

 In this scale, we do not know how much better one product is than others, only that it is
batter

 All of the information a nominal scale would have given is available from an ordinal scale

 Ordinal scales only permit the ranking of items from highest to lowest.

 In addition, positional statistics such as the median, quartile and percentile can
be determined
Interval scales

 Interval or cardinal scale has equal intervals between consecutive units of

measurement

 Possible to interpret not only the order of scale scores but also the distance
between them

 The zero-point is arbitrary and is not a true zero

 Possible to add or subtract to scale values without affecting the form of the scale but
one cannot multiply or divide

 Most of the common statistical methods of analysis can be used on interval scales
such as arithmetic operation and standard deviation.
Ratio scales

 highest level of measurement

 Has a fixed origin or zero point

 It represent the actual amount of variables.

 Measures of physical dimensions such as weight, height, distance, etc.

 Permits to compare both

 Differences in scores
 Relative magnitude of scores

 Virtually all statistical operations can be performed on ratio scales.

 Nominal scale is the least precise type of scale and Ratio scale is the mot precise
type of scale
ANALYSIS OF DATA
Editing

 Editing of data is a process of examining collected raw data (especially

in surveys) to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when
possible.
 Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate, consistent
with other facts, uniformly entered, as completed as possible and have
been well arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.
Coding
Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to
answers so that responses can be put into a limited number of categories
or classes.
Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through it the several
replies may be reduced to a small number of classes which contain the
critical information required for analysis.
Coding decisions should usually be taken at the designing stage of the
questionnaire. It makes possible to pre-code the questionnaire choices
and which in turn is helpful for computer tabulation as one can straight
forward key punch from the original questionnaires.
Coding
DATA REPRESENTATION
Data Classification

 Classification of data which happens to be the process of arranging

data in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics.
 Data having a common characteristic are placed in one class and in this
way the entire data get divided into a number of groups or classes.
TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION ACC. TO ATTRIBUTES

ACC. TO CLASS INTERVAL

ACCORDING TO ATTRIBUTES
data are classified on the basis of common characteristics which can either
be descriptive (such as literacy, sex, honesty, etc.) or numerical (such as
weight, height, income, etc.)
Methods of constructing Class Intervals
• Exclusive Method.
• Inclusive Method.
SI. No Marks in Statistics No. of Students
• Exclusive method: Under this method,
the upper limit of one class would be 1. 10 - 20 18
2. 20 - 30 12
the lower limit of the next class. 3. 30 - 40 11
4. 40 - 50 09
Total 50
• Inclusive method: In this method, the
SI. Marks in Statistics No. of Students
upper limit of each class is not repeated No
as the lower limit of the next class, and 1. 10 - 19 18
2. 20 - 29 12
it is as follows: 3. 30 - 39 11
4. 40 - 49 09
Total 50
Tabulation
 Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the
same in compact form (i.e., In the form of statistical tables) for further
analysis. In a broader sense, tabulation is an orderly arrangement of
data in columns and rows.
Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons:
 It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a
minimum.
 It facilitates the process of comparison.
 It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and
omissions.
 It provides a basis for various statistical computations.
Tabulation
Tabulation: General Principles
 Every table should have a clear, concise and adequate title and this title
should always be placed just above the body of the table.
 Every table should be given a distinct number to facilitate easy
reference.
 The column headings (captions) and the row headings (stubs) of the
table should be clear and brief.
 The units of measurement under each heading or
sub-heading must always be indicated.
 Explanatory footnotes, if any, concerning the table should be placed
directly beneath the table, along with the reference symbols used in the
table.
Tabulation: General Principles
 Source or sources from where the data in the table have been obtained
must be indicated just below the table.
 Usually the columns are separated from one another by lines which make
 the table more readable and attractive. Those columns whose data are to
be compared should be kept side by side. Similarly, percentages and/or
averages must also be kept close to the data.
 It is important that all column figures be properly aligned. Decimal
points and (+) or (–) signs should be in perfect alignment.
Tabulation: General Principles
 Abbreviations should be avoided to the extent possible and ditto marks
should not be used in the table.
 Miscellaneous and exceptional items, if any, should be usually placed in
the last row of the table.
 The arrangement of the categories in a table may be chronological,
geographical, alphabetical or according to magnitude to facilitate
comparison.
Frequency Distribution
• Frequency distribution is a process or method to simplify the mass data
into a grouped form; when the data are in quantitative form.

Conducting Frequency Distribution

• See the minimum and maximum values of observation, and find the
range.
• Divide the range into suitable number of classes.
• Reach each observation and put a tally mark against relevant class.
• Count the frequency in each class.
 Diagrammatic Representation
Merits Demerits (or) limitations The important diagrams are

• Most of the people are • Diagrams are • Simple Bar diagram.

attracted by diagrams. approximations. • Multiple Bar diagram.
• Technical Knowledge or • Minute differences in values • Sub-divided Bar diagram.
education is not cannot be represented • Percentage Bar diagram.
necessary. properly in diagrams. • Broken Bar diagram
• Time and effort required • Large differences in values • Deviation Bar diagram
are less. spoil the look of the • Pie chart
• Diagrams show the data diagram. • Pictogram
in proper perspective. • Some of the diagrams can be • Statistical maps or cartograms.
• Diagrams leave a lasting drawn by experts only. eg. In all the diagrams and graphs, the
impression. Pie chart. groups or classes are represented on
• Language is not a • Different scales portray the x-axis and the volumes or
barrier. different pictures to laymen. frequencies are represented in the y-
• Widely used tool. axis.
 Diagrammatic Representation
Example
Simple Bar diagram The cropping pattern in Tamil Nadu in the year
1974-75 was as follows. The simple bar diagram
• If the classification is based on attributes and if the for this data is given below.
attributes are to be compared with respect to a Crops Area In 1,000 hectares
single character we use simple bar diagram. Cereals 3940
• Simple bar diagrams Consists of vertical bars of Oilseeds 1165
Pulses 464
equal width.
Cotton 249
• The heights of these bars are proportional to the Others 822
volume or magnitude of the attribute.
• All bars stand on the same baseline.
• The bars are separated from each others by equal
intervals. The bars may be coloured or marked.
 Diagrammatic Representation Example
Draw a multiple bar diagram for the following data
which represented agricultural production for the
period from 2000-2004
Multiple bar diagram
• If the data is classified by attributes and if two or Year Food grains (tones) Vegetables (tones) Others (tones)
3
more characters or groups are to be compared within 2000 100 30 10
each attribute we use multiple bar diagrams. 2001 120 40 15

• If only two characters are to be compared within each 2002 130 45 25

2003 150 50 25
attribute, then the resultant bar diagram used is 2004
known as double bar diagram.
• The multiple bar diagram is simply the extension of
simple bar diagram. For each attribute two or more
bars representing separate characters or groups are to
be placed side by side. Each bar within an attribute
will be marked or coloured differently in order to
distinguish them. Same type of marking or colouring
should be done under each attribute. A footnote has to
be given explaining the markings or colourings.
Diagrammatic Representation
Year Sales (Rs.) Gross Profit (Rs.) Net Profit (Rs.)
Component bar diagram 1974 100 30 10

This is also called sub – divided bar 1975

1976
120
130
40
45
15
25
diagram. Instead of placing the bars for 1977 150 50 25

each component side by side we may

place these one on top of the other. This
will result in a component bar diagram.
Diagrammatic Representation
Example:
Draw a Percentage bar diagram for the following data

Percentage bar diagram

Using the formula Percentage = , the above table is

converted.
Year Sales (Rs.) Gross Profit (Rs.) Net Profit (Rs.)
Sometimes when the volumes of different 1974 71.43 21.43 7.14
1975 68.57 22.86 8.57
attributes may be greatly different for making 1976 65 22.5 12.5
11.1

meaningful comparisons, the attributes are 1977 66.67 22.22 1

reduced to percentages. In that case each

attribute will have 100 as its maximum volume.
This sort of component bar chart is known as
percentage bar diagram.
 Diagrammatic Representation
Pie chart / Pie Diagram
Pie diagram is a circular diagram. It may be used in place of bar diagrams. It
consists of one or more circles which are divided into a number of sectors. In Cultivable
the construction of pie diagram the following steps are involved. Whenever
one set of actual value or percentage are given, find the corresponding angles Andhra
in degrees using the following formula Karnataka
Kerala
Tamil
Angle = Radius = πr2
Here πr2 =1957
(or) Angle = r2=

r = 24.96
r= 25 (approx)
Cultivable area( in
State hectares)
State Cultivable area
Andhra Pradesh 663
Andhra Pradesh 121.96
Karnataka 448

Kerala 290 Karnataka 82.41

Tamil Nadu 556 Kerala 53.35

Total 1957
Tamil Nadu 102.28
Graphical Representation
Graphic representation is a visual way of analyzing numerical data
Graphs serve:
a) As a method of presentation
b) As a tool of analysis.
Graphs are divided into two parts:
c) Graphs of Frequency Distribution.
d) Graphs of Time Series (Line graphs). Fig. Quadrant

Graphs of Frequency Distribution: Generally four methods are used to

represent a frequency distribution graphically.
a) Line Frequency Graph
b) Histogram
c) Frequency polygon Graph
d) Frequency Curve or Smoothed Frequency Curve
e) Ogive or Cumulative Frequency Graph
Graphical Representation

Line Frequency Graph

Most appropriate use- to compare discrete variables

Fig. Line Frequency Graph

Graphical Representation

Histogram
• Histogram is a non-cumulative frequency graph it is drawn on a natural scale
in which the representative frequencies of the different class of values are
represented through vertical rectangles drawn closed to each other.
• Measure of central tendency, mode can be easily determined with the help of
this graph.

Table. Data for histogram

Graphical Representation

Advantages of histogram:
1. It is easy to draw and simple to understand.
2. It helps us to understand the distribution easily and quickly.
3. It is more precise than the polygene.
Limitations of histogram:
4.It is not possible to plot more than one distribution on same axes as histogram.
5.Comparison of more than one frequency distribution on the same axes is not
possible.
6. It is not possible to make it smooth.
Graphical Representation

Uses of histogram:
1.Represents the data in graphic form.

2.Provides the knowledge of how the scores in the group are distributed.
Whether the scores are piled up at the lower or higher end of the
distribution or are evenly and regularly distributed throughout the scale.
3.Frequency Polygon. The frequency polygon is a frequency graph which is
drawn by joining the coordinating points of the mid-values of the class
intervals and their corresponding frequencies.
Graphical Representation

Frequency Polygon Graph

• Identical to histogram
• It uses a line graph to represent
quantitative data.

Table. Data for Frequency polygon Graph Fig. Frequency polygon Graph
Graphical Representation
Advantages of frequency polygon:
1.It is easy to draw and simple to understand.
2. It is possible to plot two distributions at a time on same axes.
3.Comparison of two distributions can be made through frequency
polygon.
4. It is possible to make it smooth.
Limitations of frequency polygon:
1. It is less precise.
2. It is not accurate in terms of area the frequency upon each
interval.
Graphical Representation
Uses of frequency polygon:
1.When two or more distributions are to be compared the
frequency polygon is used.
2. It represents the data in graphic form.
3.It provides knowledge of how the scores in one or more group are
distributed. Whether the scores are piled up at the lower or higher end
of the distribution or are evenly and regularly distributed throughout
the scale.
Graphical Representation
Frequency Curve or Smoothed
Frequency Curve
When the sample is very small and the frequency
distribution is irregular the polygon is very jig-
jag. In order to wipe out the irregularities.

Fig. Frequency curve

Table. Data for Frequency curve

Graphical Representation
Ogive or Cumulative Frequency Graph Table. Data for Ogive Frequency graph
Ogive is a cumulative frequency graph drawn on a
natural scale to determine the values of certain
factors like median, Quartile, Percentile etc.

Uses of Ogive:
1.Ogive is useful to determine the number of students
below and above a particular score.
2.When the median as a measure of central tendency is
wanted.

Fig. Ogive Frequency graph

Bibliography
 https://faculty.elgin.edu/dkernler/statistics/ch01/1-4.html
• How to Research by Loraine Blaxter, Christina Hughes and Malcolm
Tight
• Sedgwick, Philip. (2015). Multistage sampling. BMJ (online). 351.
h4155. 10.1136/bmj.h4155.
• http://www.unsiap.or.jp/elearning/el_material/Agri/rap_Sa
 mpling_Indonesia/2_M2_Multistage_Sampling.pdf
• http://home.iitk.ac.in/~shalab/sampling/chapter10sampling
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THANK YOU…