CHAPTER FOUR

MOTIVATION CONCEPTS AND

THEIR APPLICATIONS
 What is Motivation
 Motivation is defined as individual’s intention or willingness to put maximum effort in
his/her work to reach organizational goals and enhance one’s ability to satisfy some
individual needs.

 Motivation is an internal force that energizes behavior, gives direction to behavior, and
underlies the tendency to persist.

 Motivating is the management process of influencing people’s behavior.

 There are three major elements related to motivation:

 Effort: It refers to an individual’s intensity in reaching the stated goal.

 Need: It is a state of deficiency and the organism tries to restore this deficiency to
make it as equilibrium.

 Goals: Human behavior is always goal directed. Once the desired goal is satisfied,
 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation: It refers to self, generated factors that
influence people to behave in a particular way or to move in a
particular direction. These factors include responsibility, freedom
to act, scope to use and develop skills and abilities, interesting and
challenging work, opportunities for advancement etc.
 Extrinsic Motivation: Efforts made by others to motivate people.
This may be e.g.: reward, punishment, appreciation etc.
 Characteristics of Motivation
 Motivation is a psychological phenomenon. It is the inner desire of
an individual to accomplish something more.

 Motivation is a continuous process. Since need is a continuous

phenomenon if one need is satisfied the other need emerges.

 Motivation is caused due to anticipated perceived value from an

action. Perceived value is the probability or the expectancy.

 There are unsatisfied needs. A person remains disturbed till they

are satisfied.

 Individual is motivated by positive motivation. It refers to

 Importance of Motivation
High level of performance: It is the duty of every manager to
ensure that the employees have a high degree of motivation.

Low employee turnover and absenteeism. Employee turnover and

absenteeism is caused due to low level of motivation on the part of
managers.

Acceptance of organization change. Management must

continuously scan the external and the internal environment.

Organizational image: Employees are the mirrors of any

organization. Managers must lay down high performance standards
 Theories of Motivation
1. Early Theories of Motivation:
 The traditional approach: - the traditional approach to employee motivation is
represented explicitly by the work of Fredrick W. Taylor who suggested the use
of an incentive pays system. He assumed economic gain was every ones
primary motivation . People could expected to perform any kind of job if they
were paid enough .
 The human relations approach:- the human relation approach grew out of
the work at western electric of Elton mayo and his associates .The human
relationists emphasized the role of social processes in the work place. Their
basic assumptions were that employees want to feel useful and
important ,employees have strong social needs and that these needs are more
important than money in motivating employees.
2. Contemporary Theories of Motivation

2.1. Need-Based/ Content Theories of Motivation: The earliest studies of

motivation involved an examination of individual needs. At the time,
researchers developed theories to understand what people need. Four
theories may be placed under this category:
i. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:
 Human beings have needs that are hierarchically ranked.
 once a lower level need is satisfied, it no longer serves as a motivator.

 Fundamental Assumption
 Only unsatisfied needs can influence behavior; satisfied needs do not
act as motivator
 A person’s needs are arranged in an order of importance, or hierarchy,
from the basic to the complex
 The person advances to the next level of the hierarchy, or from basic
to complex needs, only when the lower need is at least minimally
satisfied.
Figure 1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Cont’d
Physiological Needs: Physiological needs refer to the need for food,
water, shelter, cloth and other biological needs.

Safety Needs: The safety needs include the need for freedom from threat
caused by the environment, animals and people.

Love and Belonging Needs: These needs cover the need of

relationships, affection, giving and receiving love and sense of belonging.

Self Esteem Needs: It is also known as ego needs, which fulfill the need
for strength, achievement, recognition, appreciation, respect and prestige.

Self-actualization Needs: These are the need for full development of

one’s potential.
 ii. Alderfer’s ERG theory

Instead of the five needs that are hierarchically organized, Alderfer

proposed that basic human needs may be grouped under three categories.
 Existence needs, or material needs, which are satisfied by food, air,
water, pay, fringe benefits, and working conditions.
 Relatedness needs, or needs for establishing and maintaining
interpersonal relationships with co-workers, superiors, subordinates,
friends, and family.
 Growth needs, or needs that are expressed by an individual's attempt to
find opportunities for unique personal development by making creative
or productive contributions at work.
Existence (E) needs are similar to Maslow's physiological and safety needs;
Relatedness (R) needs are similar to Maslow's affiliation needs; and
Growth (G) needs are similar to Maslow's esteem and self-actualization
needs.
Fig,2: Alderfer’s ERG theory
iii. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
 Herzberg investigated the question “What do people want from their jobs?” in an
effort to determine what might lead to a person’s success or failure at work.
 He found that intrinsic factors such as achievement, recognition, the work itself,
responsibility, advancement, and growth seem to be related to job satisfaction.
 Herzberg also found that there were characteristics that led to job dissatisfaction.
The factors that caused dissatisfaction were extrinsic such as company policy
and administration, supervision, interpersonal relations, and working conditions.
 Herzberg’s research led him to conclude that the opposite of satisfaction is not
dissatisfaction, as was traditionally believed. Removing dissatisfying
characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying.
 The presence of motivating factors always ensures job satisfaction and happiness
among the employees.
 Herzberg argued that improvement in the hygiene factors would only minimize
dissatisfaction but not increase satisfaction and motivation.
Fig,3:Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
iv. McClelland’s Three – needs Theory
McClelland proposed three types of needs common in work life:
 Need for achievement. The need for achievement (nAch) is the
desire to do something better or more efficiently than it has been
done before. McClelland found that high achievers differentiate
themselves from others by their desire to do things better.

 Need for power. The need for power (nPow) is the desire to have
impact, to be influential, and to control others.

 Need for affiliation. The desire for friendly and close interpersonal
relationships.
2.2. Process Theories of Motivation

The process theories of motivation are concerned with answering

the questions of how individual behavior is energized, directed,
maintained, and stopped.

a. Vroom Expectancy Theory:

 An expectancy is defined as a momentary belief concerning the likelihood
that a particular act will be followed by a particular outcome.

Expectancy: Effort-Performance Relationship

Instrumentality: Performance-Reward Relationship

Valence: Rewards–Personal Goals Relationship

Figure 5: Summery of Expectancy Theory
Figure,6: How can manager motivate employees
b. Theory ‘X’ and Theory ‘Y’
Douglas McGregor proposed two distinct views of human beings:
one basically negative, labeled theory x, and the other basically
positive labeled theory y.
After viewing the way in which mangers dealt with managers,
McGregor concluded that a manager’s view of the nature of human
beings is based on certain grouping of assumptions.
Theory X, has four assumptions held by managers :
 Employees inherently dislike work and whenever possible will
attempt to avoid it.
 Since employees dislike works, they must be coerced, controlled or
threatened with punishment to achieve goals.
 Employees will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction
whenever possible.
 Most workers place security above all other factors associated with
 Cont’d
Theory Y, has four assumptions held by managers :

 Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play.

 People will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the
objectives.

 The average person can learn to accept, even seek responsibility.

 The ability to make innovative decisions is widely dispersed throughout the

population.

 Theory X can be effective for less developed and educated workers whereas
Theory Y is feasible for developed and educated workers.

 Individuals with creative thinking and high ambitions are more successful under
Theory Y and the opposite holds true for those who lack creativity and ambition.
c. Porter and Lawler Model
The model highlights two important factors which facilitate or influence
to put more effort in work. They are the valence and perceived Effort-
Reward probability.

Valence: The first factor concerns the extent to which the value of reward
(valence) that is likely to be received from their job influences the amount
of effort. If the expected reward is not attractive enough, he will lower his
effort.
 Perceived Effort-Reward probability: The second factor states the
influence of perceived effort-reward probability. If a person feels that the
probability of getting reward is very high for given level of effort, he
will more likely to put high level of effort in his work.
d. J.STACY ADAM’S EQUITY THEORY

Adams proposes equity theory of motivation based on the

proposition that everyone tend to compare the ratio of his/her input
and out come with input-outcome ratio of other person.
The reference person or comparison person will always be in the
same group, class, age, category etc.
For example, a manager will always compare himself/herself with
other fellow manages. A worker will always compare with other
worker in the same organization.
In the comparison process, if a person feels that his ratio of input-
outcome is more or less equal to that of his comparison person’s
ratio of input-outcome, a state of equity exists. Then he perceives
the situation as just and fair.
If a person perceives the ratio as unequal, he will experience
inequity that will lead to tension and stress.
 Cont’d
Inequity exists under two conditions:
The person feels a negative inequity, when he has been
rewarded less for his efforts than another.
The person experiences a positive inequity, when he finds
himself rewarded more than another for a similar degree of
effort.
Figure,8: J. Stacy Adam's equity theory
 Cont’d
 Based on equity theory, the employees who perceive inequity in the occupation may have
many options to choose to restore balance.
1. Changing their input: by putting more effort in their job, updating skills, knowledge or
talents etc.

2. Changing their outcomes: by increasing their output such as producing more volume of
output, high quality of output, conserving more resources.

3. Changing self-perception: by rationalizing certain things such as I am working harder

than anyone else.

4. Changing perception of the reference person: by assuming that the person has more
contacts with influential superiors and gets more benefits.

5. Choosing a different referent person and seeking comfort with that person

6. Leaving the field once for all: some people try to reduce inequity feelings by getting
e. Goal-Setting Theory
Locke proposed that intentions to work towards a goal are major
source of work motivation.
The goals facilitate employees what needs to be done and how much
effort will need to be put forth in their tasks.
The evidence shows the work values and goals will determine
strongly the performance of an individual.
Four important requirements for setting the goal:
 Goal Specificity: Setting specific goals with clear expectations
both in terms of quantitatively as well as qualitatively will reduce
the ambiguity or confusion among the employees.
 Goal Difficulty: if the goals are too difficult to complete, he will
get high level of frustration and not able to complete the task in
time. Hence, it is desirable to set the goal with moderate difficult
level that will provide much challenge and motivate people to do
 Cont’d
Participation in Goal Setting Process: If the employees are
allowed to participate in setting their work goals with clear
directions, the likelihood getting full acceptance and participation
in their task will be very high.
 Feedback on Goal Effort: Feedback helps in as much as is it
keeps the employee’s goal directed behavior on target and
stimulates the person to put in greater efforts.
 How Does Goal Setting Motivate

 According to Locke, goal setting motivates in four ways:

 Goals direct attention: Goals indicate where individuals should direct

their efforts when they are choosing among things to do.
 Goals regulate effort: Goals suggest how much effort an individual
should put into a given task.
 Goals increase persistence: Persistence represents the effort spent on a
task over time. When people keep goals in mind, they will work hard
on them, even in the face of obstacles.
 Goals encourage the development of strategies and action plans:
Once goals are set, individuals can develop plans for achieving those
f. Reinforcement Theory

According to reinforcement theory, behavior is a function of its

outcomes.

Reinforcement theory describes four interventions to modify

employee behavior.

Two of these are methods of increasing the frequency of desired

behaviors, while the remaining two are methods of reducing the
frequency of undesired behaviors.
 Cont’d
Positive reinforcement: is a method of increasing the desired
behavior. For example, praising an employee for treating a customer
respectfully.
Negative reinforcement: is also used to increase the desired
behavior. Negative reinforcement involves removal of unpleasant
outcomes once desired behavior is demonstrated. Irritating an
employee to complete a report is an example of negative
reinforcement.
Extinction: is used to decrease the frequency of negative behaviors.
Extinction is the removal of rewards following negative behavior. For
example, it has been shown that when people are rewarded for their
unethical behaviors, they tend to demonstrate higher levels of
unethical behaviors.
Punishment: is another method of reducing the frequency of
undesirable behaviors. Punishment involves presenting negative
consequences following unwanted behaviors. For example, Giving an
Figure,10: Reinforcement Methods
10Q FOR U’R ATTENTION!!

END OF CHAPTER FOUR