Selection

and
evolution
What do you think!

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Learning Objectives

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17.1 Variation.

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“Variation can be defined
AS DIFFERENCE IN
CHRACTERISTICS OF
INDIVIDUALS OF THE
SAME SPECIE.

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• Variation is the differences between individuals of the same

species.

• Genetic variations are those variation that can be inherited and

are determined by genes.

× Phenotypic variation may be brought about by genes, but can

also be caused by the environment, or combination of both

genes and environment.

Variation
× Phenotypic Variation
× Genetic Variation

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 1.
CAuses
Genetic Variation

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Crossing Over
Crossing over between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes
During prophase 1

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Random
This independent assortment, in which the chromosome inherited from either the father
or mother can sort into any gamete, produces the potential for tremendous genetic
variation. This process underlies the chromosomal basis of inheritance 12
 Random
Fertilization
Sexual reproduction
contributes to genetic
variation because it is the
random fertilization of
eggs and sperm. Therefore,
when zygotes are formed,
the gene combinations will
be different each time,
even if they come from the
same two parents.

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Random mating

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M u t a t i on

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CAUSES OF GENETIC V
ARIATION
× 1. Crossing over between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes
during prophase 1
× 2. Independent assortment of chromosome and hence alleles during meiosis
× 3. Random fusion of gametes
× 4. Random mating
× 5. Mutations (Brings the most genetic variation)

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cc q
× Which source of generic variation introduces
the most variation and why?

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× The first four causes of genetic variation result in
SHUFFLING OF ALLELES IN A
POPULATION whereas New ALLELES s
mutations results in the production of hence
mutations bring most genetic variations

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Our process is easy

Crossing Over Random

Fertilizatio Mutation
Independent
Assortment n

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Phenotypic
variation

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Phenotypic Variation

Genes Environment Phenotype

Phenotype = Genotype + Environment

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Environmental factors
× The environment that an organism lives in can also have an impact
on its phenotype
× Different environments around the globe experience very different
conditions in terms of the:
× Length of sunlight hours (which may be seasonal)
× Supply of nutrients (food)
× Availability of water
× Temperature range
× Oxygen levels

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CCQ

Characteristics are passed from parents to

offspring in their genes. Variation caused by the
environment does not change the DNA of an
organism.

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Phenotypic variation types
× 1. Continous Variation
× 2. Discontinous variation

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CONTINOUS VS DISCON
TINOUS
VARIATIOn
× CONTINOUS × DISCONTINOUS
1.Quantitative variation in phenotypes 1.Quanlitative variation in phenotypes
2.There are very small difference in 2.There are very large difference in
Phenotypes. Phenotypes.
3.Phenotypes are too many, with very 3.Phenotypes are very low in number, with
small differences, so its difficult to very large differences, so can easily fall into
distinguish them. distinguishable categories.
4. There is a range of phenotypes 4. There are few phenotypes with no
between two extremes. intermediates

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× CONTINOUS × DISCONTINOUS

× 1. Involve polygenes(Polygenetic
1. Usually involves one or two genes
inheritance)- Phenotypes are
affected by Many genes
2.Phenotypes are influenced by genes only
× 2. Phenotypes are influenced by both
genes and environment 3.Different alleles at a single gene locus,
have large effects on the phenotype.
× 3. Different alleles at a single gene
4. Different genes have quiet different
locus, have small effects on the effects on the phenotype.
phenotype
× Different genes have same, often
additive effects on the phenotype

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Write down differences
between continuous and
discontinuous variation
and give three examples of
each.

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 × THE
GENETIC
BASIS OF
CONTINOUS
&
DISCONTINO
US
VARIATION 37
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 × THE
GENETIC
BASIS OF
DISCONTINO
US
VARIATION
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Genetic Basis of DISCON
TINOUS
Variation
× Occurs solely due
to genetic
factors

× The environment
has no direct
effect
× Phenotype = gen
o ty pe

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Genetic Basis of DISCONT
INOUS
Variation
× At the genetic level:

× Different genes have

different effects on the
phenotype

× Different alleles at a
single gene locus have
a large effect on the pheno
type

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Different alleles of a single
gene can have a
large effect on the phenoty
pe

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TWO Different geneS ON
DIFFERENT LOCI
CAN INTERACT TO PRO
DUCE phenotypic
DIFFERENCES- EPISTAS
IS

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Examp
le
× A good example of this is the F8 gene that codes for the
blood-clotting protein Factor VIII
× The different alleles at the F8 gene locus dictate whether or not normal
Factor VIII is produced and whether the individual has the condition
haemophilia 44
 × THE
GENETIC
BASIS OF
CONTINOUS
VARIATION
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 Define monogene.

Genetic basis of continuo

us variation
This type of variation is ca
used
by an interaction between
genetics and the environm
ent
Phenotype = genotype +
environment

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 Define monogene.
Genetic basis of continuo
us variation
At the genetic le
vel:
× If a large
× Different alleles a × Different genes can
number of genes
t a single locus have the same
have a combined
have a small effect on the
effect on the
effect on the phenotype and these
phenotype they
phenotype add together to have
are known
an additive effect
as polygenes

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 The additive
effect of genes
• The height of a plant is controlled by two unlinked
genes A/ a and B / b
• The two genes have an additive effect
Hypothetical Example: of height inheritance in humans

• For example: 2 genes influencing the height in humans are as follows

• A/a
A- codes for 2x cm height
a- codes for x cm height

B/b

B- codes for 2x cm height

b- codes for x cm height
Possible Genotypes Possible Phenotypes

• AABB 8x cm
• AaBB 7xcm
• aaBB 6xcm
• AABb 7xcm
• AaBb 6xcm
• aaBb 5xcm
• Aabb 6xcm
• Aabb 5xcm
• aabb 4xcm
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Wrap up

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17.1.3 Variation: t-test https://www.the
seashore.org.u
Method k/theseashore/
Stats%20for%2
0twits/T%20Tes
t.html
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Pg. 227 P4 booklet
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Recall:
× 1. Standard Deviation
× 2. Standard Error
× 3. Error Bars

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STEPS OF T –
TEST:-
STEPS OF T – TEST:-
1. State the null hypothesis.
2. Calculate the t value
3. Calculate the degree of freedom
4. Refer to the T distribution table to find out the critical value
5. Compare the calculated t value to critical value

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Homework
× Heart rates of two groups were measured. Participants of Group A
took caffeine whereas participants of group B took water.
Heart rates of Group A
92,85,85,82,88,88,90,95,85,80,88,72

Heart rate of Group B

82,75,75,72,78,80,85,75,70,78,72

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Learning Objectives
Learning outcomes Candidates should be able to: . 17.2.3 Explain how selection, the founder effect
17.2.1 Explain that natural selection occurs because and genetic drift, including the bottleneck effect,
populations have the capacity to produce many offspring may affect allele frequencies in populations.
that compete for resources; in the ‘struggle for existence’, 17.2.4 Outline how bacteria become resistant to
individuals that are best adapted are most likely to survive antibiotics as an example of natural selection.
to reproduce and pass on their alleles to the next
generation. 17.2.5 Use the Hardy– Weinberg principle to
calculate allele and genotype frequencies in
17.2.2 Explain how environmental factors can act populations and state the conditions when this
as stabilising, disruptive and directional forces of principle can be applied.
natural selection

17.2 Natural and artificial selection.

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Recall!

 allele,
 frequency,
 dominant,
 recessive,
 homozygous,
 heterozygous,
 mutation,

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• Every individual within a
species population has
the potential to
reproduce and have
offspring which contribute
to population growth

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Natural Selection
• If the offspring for every individual survived to adulthood and
reproduced then the population would experience exponential
growth

• This type of growth only happens when there

are no environmental factors or population
checks acting on the population.

• For example, when there are plentiful

resources and no disease

our office
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What is natural selection
?

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WHAT IS THE RAW MATERIAL FOR
NATURAL SELECTION?

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Variation is the raw material
on
which natural selection acts

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Environmental factors
Give examples of biotic
• In reality, there are and abiotic
several environmental factors that environmental factors
prevent every individual in a
population making it to adulthood
and reproducing

• Environmental factors
can be biotic or abiotic

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Examples
• One well known but rare example of exponential
growth in a population is the introduction of 24
European rabbits into Australia in the 1800s.
• The rabbits had an abundance of resources, little or no
competition and no natural predators.
• This meant the population increased rapidly and they
became a major pest

The virus (Myxomatosis) was intentionally

introduced in Australia, France, and Chile in
the 1950s to control wild European rabbit
populations.

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Key Terms
Fitness
Selection Pressure
Natural Selection

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Key Terms
Population
Allele
Allele frequency

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 What is the
importance of
Variation in a
population?

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Importance of variation:
× 1. Different survival rates
× 2.Leads to either reproductive success or failure
× 3.Allows some individuals within the population to
ADAPT to the changing environment
× Low genetic diversity can result in more susceptibility to
diseases

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A recipe for natural selectio
n

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CCQ
3 a There seems to be no selection pressure against
unusual colours, as there are no predators.
b Possibilities include ability to cope with a limited food
or water supply, ability to cope with the limited breeding
space, and susceptibility to diseases such as
myxomatosis, if this is present on the island.

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17.2.2 Natural Selection:
Types of Selection
× There are three types of selection:
× Stabilising Selection
× Directional Selection
× Disruptive Selection

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 Stabilizing selection
• Stabilising selection is natural selection that keeps
allele frequencies relatively constant over
generations
• This means things stay as they are unless there is a
change in the environment
1. A type of natural selection which keeps the organisms same over long period of time

2. It maintains allele frequency in the population

3. It brings the phenotype closer to the mean (DECREASES THE STANDARD

DEVIATION) and stabilizes them

4. Stabilizing selection DOESNOT bring evolution

5. In stabilizing selection the selection pressure acts against BOTH the extremes

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2. Clutch size in robins (birds), larger clutch size means more smaller eggs and smaller clutch size
means less larger eggs

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NOW JUST IMAGINE

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For example: A recent finding has Directional selection

shown that climate change is

having an effect on fish size in • Directional selection is
certain habitats natural selection that produces
The increase in temperature a gradual change in allele frequencies
is selecting for a smaller body over several generations
size and against a larger body size • This usually happens when there is
a change
in environment / selection pressures or
a new allele(mutation) has appeared
in the population that is advantageous

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 DIRECTIONAL SELECT
ION:-
× Introduction of a new environmental factor or a new allele can bring about a change in
individual over long period of time. This is called Directional Selection.

IN DIRECTIONAL SELECTION THERE IS

SELECTION PRESSURE AT ONE EXTREME
OF POPULATION

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× https://askabiologist.asu.edu/peppered-
moths-game/play.html

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Directional Selection
× •Neck of Giraffe
× •Antibiotic resistance
of bacteria
× •Moth color (melanin)
× •Camouflage/Mimics

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DISRUPTIVE SELECTION:-

A type of natural selection in which the

selection pressure is against the organisms
near the center of the normal distribution
curve as organisms are fit at the extremes

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• Darwin observed that the Galapagos finches had a
wide variety of beaks that seemed to correspond to
an adaptation to diverse environmental conditions
found on the islands. Claw-like beaks enabled
finches to eat buds and fruit. Extended beaks
facilitated the extraction of grubs from the ground. Disruptive selection

Heavy beaks provided the means for breaking seed

coats and consuming seeds. Darwin surmised that,
over time, the original finches evolved with beaks
best suited for diverse functions. The finches with • Disruptive selection is natural selection
the better beak adaptations for their environment
were successful and survived to reproduce. Each that maintains high frequencies of two
generation had passed along the beak adaptations different sets of alleles
to offspring who were also more successfu l.

• Disruptive selection causes polymorphism:

the continued existence of two or more
distinct phenotypes in species

• This can occur in an environment that

shows variation

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 Disruptive Selection
× •Causes divergence within the species
× •Occurs when two different types of resources
in one area
× •Results in specialization for each branched
group
× •May lead to formation of new species
× •E.g. Darwin’s Finches

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Wrap up- Identify the types of selection

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EXAMPLES OF NATURAL
SELECTION:-
× 1. Antibiotic resistance in bacteria
× 2. Industrial melanism in Peppered moths
× 3. Sickle cell anemia

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Natural Selection: Antibiotic
Resistance
Antibiotics are chemical substances
that inhibit or kill bacterial cells with
little or no harm to human tissue
• Antibiotics are derived from
naturally occurring substances that
are harmful to prokaryotic cells
(structurally or physiologically) but
usually do not affect eukaryotic cells

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 Exam points:-
1. Natural selection allows for resistant genes to spread.
2. Antibiotic acts as a selection pressure
3. Bacteria with allele coding for penicillinase has a
selective advantage.
4. Antibiotic only kills bacteria that are non resistant.
5. Resistant bacteria are more likely to survive and reproduce
6. More likely to pass down allele by binary fission
7. Overtime resistant allele frequency increases

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HOW IS ANTIBIOTIC RE
SISTANCE
C A U SE D
× Because of × Natural selection allows
spontaneous/random resistant genes to spread
mutation in bacteria.

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× https://youtu.be/plVk4NVIUh8
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The future of antibiotic resistance
• Antibiotic-resistant strains are a major problem in human
medicine
• New resistant strains are constantly emerging due to
the overuse of antibiotics
• By using antibiotics frequently, humans exert a selective
pressure on the bacteria, which supports the evolution of
antibiotic resistance

• Scientists are trying hard to find new antibiotics that

bacteria have not yet been exposed to, but this process is
expensive and time-consuming 147
 4 a Deaths increased to a maximum in 2006, and then decreased.
b Deaths from non-resistant S. aureus remained relatively constant throughout the period
from 1993 to 2012, with only small fluctuations. In contrast, deaths from MRSA increased
CCQ greatly between 1993 and 2006, before decreasing again. In 1993 to 1996, most deaths were
from the nonresistant strain, and MRSA deaths overtook them for the first time in 1997. By
2006, there were more than 3.5 times as many deaths from MRSA as from the nonresistant
strain. By 2012, there were still slightly more deaths from MRSA, but the proportion was much
less than previously.

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CCQ

c Antibiotics are widely used in hospitals, so the bacteria are exposed to this selection
pressure in hospitals more than elsewhere.
d A reduction in the prescription of antibiotics reduces the exposure of bacteria to this
selection pressure, and therefore means that there is no selective advantage to bacteria
carrying the allele for resistance.

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Identify Selection Pressure?
Who has Selective Advantage?
Who is more likely to survive and reproduce
Who is more likely to pass down allele
Over time whose frequency of allele will increase

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SICKLE CELL ANEMIA:_

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What process can change
allele frequency

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× 1. Natural selection
× 2.Genetic Drift
-Founder Effect
- Bottle Neck
× 3. Artificial Selection

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Natural Selection: Chang
es in Allele
Frequencies
× Evolution involves changes in allele frequencies over time
× This can be caused by natural selection
× In addition to natural selection it is also possible for allele frequencies
to change as a result of chance; this can occur due to a process known
as genetic drift
× Other processes that can cause changes in allele frequencies due to
chance events include
× The founder effect
× The bottleneck effect
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Drift
Sometimes the change in Allele frequency is Only due to chance
and not by natural selection.

Affects Small populations more than large populations

Higher chance that allele will be lost from the population

Such change in alleles is fluctuating and is not predictable.

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 Although genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution,
it doesn’t work to produce adaptations.

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Random events cause small changes unless:-

1. Migration – FOUNDER EFFECT

2. Natural Disaster- BOTTLE NECK EFFECT

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 de r E ff e c t
Foun
The founder effect occurs when a small
group breaks away from a larger population
to colonise a new territory
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Founder Effect
The founder effect occurs when a small group breaks away from a larger population to
colonise a new territory
× As this population subset does not have the same degree of diversity as a larger
population, it is subject to more genetic drift
× Consequently, as this new colony increases in size, its gene pool will no longer be
representative of the original gene pool
× Lower genetic diversity than original population
× The founder effect differs from population bottlenecks in that the original population
remains largely intact
× Example: Certain Amish communities have a higher incidence of polydactyly because
of inter-marriage within the community

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The founder effect in liza
r ds

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Population Bottlenecks
× Population bottlenecks occur when an event reduces population size by an order of
magnitude (~ >50%)
× These bottlenecks may result from natural occurrences (e.g. fires, floods, etc.) or be
human induced (e.g. overhunting)
× The surviving population has less genetic variability than before and will be subject to
a higher level of genetic drift
× Gene pool will not be representative of original gene population
× As the surviving members begin to repopulate, the newly developing gene pool will be
divergent to the original
× Example: Northern elephant seals have reduced genetic diversity compared with
southern seals due to overhunting

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 Example of the bottleneck
×
effect
A clear example of a genetic bottleneck can be seen in cheetahs today
× Roughly 10,000 years ago there was a large and genetically diverse
cheetah population
× Most of the population was suddenly killed off when the climate
changed drastically at the end of the Ice Age
× As a result the surviving cheetahs were isolated in small
populations and lots of inbreeding occurred
× This meant that the cheetah population today has a lack of genetic
variation

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Summary

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