Disease of Colon and Rectum
Disease of Colon and Rectum
Disease of Colon and Rectum
RECTUM
OVERVIEW
⚫ DYSENTRIE
⚫ SHIGELLA
⚫ AMOEBA
⚫ CHOLERA
⚫ GIARDIASIS
⚫ IBD
⚫ ULCERATIVE COLITIS
⚫ CHRON DISEASE
⚫ DIVETICULOSIS
⚫ DIVERTICULITIS
Microorganisms causing diarrhea
1. Salmonella(GNR) BACRTERIA
2. Vibrio(GNR)
3. Clostridium perfringens(GPR)
4. Clostridium difficile(GPR)
5. Campylobacter(GNR)
6. Enterotoxigenic E.coli(GNR)
7. Enterohemorrhagic E.coli
8. Enteropathogenic E.coli
9. Yersinia enterocolitica (GNR)
10. Bacillus (GPR)
1. Rotavirus viruses
2. Adenovirus
3. Norwalk virus
candida fungi
Causes
Diarrhoe
a
Dysenter Persisten
Watery
y t
Rotaviru Multiple
E. coli Cholera Amoebic Bacillary
s cause
Dysentery
⚫ Ameabic dysentery
⚫ Entameaba histolytica
⚫ Bacillary dysentery
⚫ Shigella
⚫ Enteroinvasive E coli
Mechanism of diarrhea and dysentery
⚫ Noninflammatory/
secretory
⚫ Clinical manifestation
⚫ Diarrhea - watery to loose, ±
nausea/vomiting/abd pain
⚫ Mechanism:
⚫ Preformed toxin, enterotoxin
⚫ Feco-oral transmission
⚫ PATHOGENICITY
⚫ Exist in two forms
⚫ Cyst is the infective form that is ingeted
⚫ Inside gut cyst changes to Trophozoite
that are the active form that attach to the
large gut🡪Invade🡪flask shape ulcers
⚫ Acute-Extreme abd tenderness,
dysentery, dehydration, Diarrhoea, abd
cramps, vomiting, tenesmus
⚫ Liver abcess
⚫ Lab diagnosis
⚫ Trophozoites with pseudopodal
movement in stool
⚫ Cysts in stool
⚫ Treatment
⚫ Metronidazole
Sign Symptoms of Amebiasis
⚫ Offensive and bulky stools containing mostly mucus
and sometimes blood
⚫ Lower abdominal cramp
⚫ Mild grade fever
⚫ No dehydration
Antimicrobial therapy
⚫ Shigella
⚫ Ampicillin, ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin, ceftriaxone
⚫ Vibrio cholerae
⚫ Doxycycline, tetracycline
COMPLICATIONS:
DYSENTERY
⚫ Electrolyte imbalances
⚫ Convulsions
⚫ Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS)
⚫ Leukemoid reaction
⚫ Toxic megacolon
⚫ Protein losing enteropathy
⚫ Arthritis
⚫ Perforation
Vibrio cholera
⚫ The disease called cholera
⚫ Once in the human small bowel, the
organism produces a powerful exotoxin
called cholera toxin
⚫ Cholera toxin consists of two parts (A
subunit) and a (B subunit). The B subunit
binds to GM1 receptor on intestinal cells
and delivers the A subunit inside the cell.
The A subunit increases the intracellular
levels of cyclic AMP. The, cAMP inhibits
the sodium transport system in villus cells
and activates chloride secretion, and thus
causing accumulation of sodium chloride in
the intestinal lumen. Water moves passively
from the cell into the lumen by osmosis.
Watery diarrhea results
Cholera
⚫ Two biotypes
⚫ Classical or Asiatic type
⚫ ElTor – more prevalent
Clinical features of cholera
⚫ 24- to 48-h incubation period
⚫ Sudden onset of painless watery
diarrhea that may quickly become
voluminous
⚫ vomiting
⚫ Fever is usually absent
⚫ The stool has a characteristic
appearance: , slightly cloudy fluid
with flecks of mucus, no blood, and a
somewhat sweet, inoffensive odor. It
has been called "rice-water" stool
because of its resemblance to the
water in which rice has been washed
Complications of cholera
⚫ Dehydration follows
quickly due to fluid and
electrolyte loss
🡪hypovolemic shock and
death ensues. Signs of
dehydration
⚫ Intense thirst
⚫ Loss of skin turgor
⚫ Sunken eyes
⚫ Week pulse
⚫ Renal failure due to acute
tubular necrosis
Diagnosis
⚫ History
⚫ Stool examination
⚫ Mucus
⚫ Blood
⚫ Leukocytes
⚫ Stool culture
Sign/Symptoms of Cholera
⚫ Rice-watery stool
⚫ Marked dehydration
⚫ Projectile vomiting
⚫ No fever
⚫ Shock, unconsciousness
⚫ Scanty urine
LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS
⚫ Stool microscopy
⚫ Dark field microscopy of stool for cholera
⚫ Stool cultures
TREATMENT: 3 Ds
⚫ Dehydration correction– replace the loss of fluid and
electrolytes
⚫ Diet: Start food as soon as possible
⚫ Drug:
⚫ Tetracycline/ ciprofloxacin for cholera
⚫ Selexid for shigellosis
⚫ Metronidazole for amebiasis
COMPLICATIONS:
WATERY DIARRHEA
⚫ Dehydration
⚫ Electrolyte imbalances
⚫ Tetany
⚫ Convulsions
⚫ Hypoglycemia
⚫ Renal failure
GIARDIASIS
Overview
• Organism
• History
• Epidemiology
• Transmission
• Disease in Humans
• Disease in Animals
• Prevention and Control
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2013
Organism
• Giardia intestinalis
– Protozoal parasite
• Also known as:
– Giardia lamblia
– Lamblia intestinalis
– Giardia duodenalis
• Isolated from humans, domestic animals, and wild
animals
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2013
Geographic Distribution
• Giardia intestinalis
– Occurs worldwide
– Most common in warm climates
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2013
Diagnosis
• Direct observation in feces
– Trophozoites
• “Tear drop” shape
• Two nuclei and tumbling mobility
– Cysts
• Approximately 13 microns long
• Oval, with 2-4 nuclei
• Immunofluorescence
• ELISA, PCR
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2013
Morbidity and Mortality: Humans
• Populations affected
– Children
– Travelers, hikers
– Swimmers
• Prevalence
in developed countries
– 2% of adults
– 6-8% of children
• Up to 15% in developing countries
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2013
Parasite Stages
• Two stages of the parasite:
cyst and trophozoite
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2013
Transmission
• Cysts
– Direct transmission
– Fomites
• Contaminated water and/or food
• Ingested cysts release trophozoites
• Trophozoites multiply and encyst in intestines
• Excreted in feces
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2013
Life Cycle
• Cysts responsible for
transmission
• Cysts and trophozoites
found in feces
• Ingested by host
• Importance of animal
reservoirs unclear
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2013
Disease in Humans
• Incubation period: 1-25 days
• Most infections asymptomatic
• Symptoms of clinical disease
– Mild to severe gastrointestinal signs
• Sudden onset diarrhea
• Foul-smelling stools
• Abdominal cramps
• Bloating, flatulence
• Nausea, fatigue
• Weight loss
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2013
Disease in Humans
• Illness usually lasts for 1-2 weeks
• Chronic infections reported
– May last months to years
– Immunodeficient and immunocompetent individuals
– May lead to malabsorption syndromes, vitamin
deficiencies, severe weight loss, and debilitation
• Disaccharide intolerance
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2013
Treatment
• Anti-protozoal drugs
– Metronidazole
– Tinidazole
– Ornidazole
• Chronic cases
– May be resistant
– Prolonged therapy may be necessary
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2013
Prevention and Control
• Water
– Do not drink contaminated water
• Untreated lakes, rivers, shallow wells
– Treat potentially contaminated water
• Heat (rolling boil for one minutes)
• Filter (absolute pore size of one micron)
• Chlorinate
• Food
– Wash raw fruits and vegetables
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2013
Prevention and Control
• Practice good hygiene
– Hand washing
– Don’t swim in recreational
waters for at least two
weeks after symptoms end
– Avoid fecal exposure
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2013
Prevention and Control
• Limit environmental contamination
– Clean and promptly remove feces from
surfaces
• Keep pets indoors
• Vaccination
– Dogs and cats
– Use is controversial
Center for Food Security and Public Health, Iowa State University, 2013
IBD
• INFLAMATORY BOWEL DISEASE
• Diverticular disease
Congenital
Malformation of
Gastrointestinal and
hepatobiliar
Nailul Huda
Atresia esofagus
• Insidence: 1 : 3000 – 4500 life birth
• Etiology has been attributed to genetic factors, infections, and
teratogens, but in most instances, no cause is identifiable
Classification
(A) pure atresia of the esophagus, (B) esophageal atresia with proximal TE fistula, (C)
esophageal atresia with distal TE fistula, (D) esophageal atresia with double fistula, and (E)
H-type fistula.
Diagnosis and clinical findings
• During gestation: fetal ultrasound. Almost all patients with esophageal atresia
(and up to 60% of patients with atresia and TE fistula) have polyhydramnios.
• Neonate:
• Excessive drooling the first symptom
• feedings are attempted chokes, regurgitates, and cyanotic.
• Overflow of pharyngeal secretions into the trachea noisy breathing
• Respiratory distress is progressive
• Diagnosis is confirmed by inability to pass a firm oral or nasal tube into the
stomach.
• Radiograph to confirm the position of the tube
• seek other congenital anomalies.
Management
• The goal of treatment is to surgically restore esophageal continuity
• Primary repair is treatment of choice for esophageal atresia and TE
fistula
• If respiratory status is inadequate, or require further investigation,
surgery may be delayed for a few days
• In premature infants with respiratory distress syndrome,
gastrostomy and fistula division decompresses the abdomen and
allows adequate lung ventilation stable definitive procedure to
restore esophageal continuity
Complication
Common long-term problems after esophageal atresia repair:
• Dysphagia (50.3%)
• Gastroesophageal reflux disease without esophagitis (56.5%)
• Gastroesophageal reflux disease with esophagitis (40.2%)
• Wheeze (34.7%)
• Recurrent respiratory tract infections (24.1%)
• Physician-diagnosed asthma (22.3%)
• Persistent cough (14.6%)
• Barrett esophagus (6.4%) 4x adult populatin, 26x children population
Esophageal Atresia Without Fistula
• Insidence: 5-8% of esophageal anomalies
• Diagnosis and clinical findings
• During intrauterine life,: polyhydramnios, the absence of a stomach bubble.
• Neonatal period: excessive drooling and a scaphoid abdomen.
• Radiologic findings pathognomonic of pure esophageal atresia include a
dilated upper pouch and absence of air below the diaphragm.
• Treatment
• Initial treatment: continuous suction of the upper pouch and a feeding
gastrostomy constitute initial treatment.
• Primary esophagus repair can be performed, usually at an age of 2-3
months
Biliary atresia
• Biliary atresia characterized by obliteration or discontinuity of the
extrahepatic biliary system, resulting in obstruction to bile flow
• The pathogenesis of this disorder remains poorly understood.
• Problems of hepatobiliary ontogenesis atresia with another
congenital anomalies.
• The more common neonatal type is characterized by a progressive
inflammatory lesion a role for infectious and/or toxic agents
causing bile duct obliteration.
Epidemiology
• Frequency
• 1 per 10,000-15,000 live births.
• Mortality/Morbidity
• Long-term survival rate for infants with biliary atresia following
portoenterostomy was 47-60% at 5 years and 25-35% at 10 years.
• 1/3 patients, bile flow is inadequate following surgery biliary cirrhosis
liver transplantation
• Post portoenterostomy, complications : cholangitis (50%) and portal
hypertension (>60%).
• Sex
• females > males.
Diagnosis and Clinical finding
• Jaundice, dark urine, and light stools
• full-term infant, although a higher incidence of low birthweight may
be observed.
• In most cases, acholic stools are not noted at birth but develop over
the first few weeks of life. Appetite, growth, and weight gain may be
normal.
• Typically full term infant and may have normal growth and weight gain
during the first few weeks of life.
• Hepatomegaly
• Splenomegaly progressive cirrhosis with portal hypertension.
• Direct hyperbilirubinemia is increase
• Physiologic jaundice frequently merges into conjugated hyperbilirubinemia.
Physiologic unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia rarely persists beyond 2
weeks. Infants with prolonged physiologic jaundice must be evaluated for
other causes.
• A high index of suspicion is key to making a diagnosis surgical treatment
before 2 months better outcome
Differential Diagnoses
• Alagille Syndrome • Pediatric Caroli Disease
• Alpha1-Antitrypsin Deficiency • Pediatric Cytomegalovirus Infection
• Byler disease • Pediatric Herpes Simplex Virus Infection
• Choledochal Cysts • Pediatric Rubella
• Cholestasis • Sinonasal Manifestations of Cystic Fibrosis
• Galactose-1-Phosphate Uridyltransferase • Syphilis
Deficiency (Galactosemia)
• Total parenteral nutrition–associated
• Idiopathic neonatal hepatitis
(TPN) cholestasis
• Inborn errors of bile acid synthesis
• Toxoplasmosis
• Lipid Storage Disorders
• Viral infections (eg, toxoplasmosis, other
• Neonatal Hemochromatosis infections, rubella, cytomegalovirus
• Nonsyndromic intrahepatic bile duct infection, and herpes simplex [TORCH])
hypoplasia
Laboratory study
• Serum bilirubin (total and direct): Conjugated hyperbilirubinemia,
defined as any level exceeding either 2 mg/dL or 20% of total
bilirubin, is always abnormal.
• Direct hyperbilirubinemia (a universal finding in neonatal
cholestasis), enzyme abnormalities include elevated AP levels.
• GGTP is elevated
• Aminotransferase levels are not particularly helpful in establishing a
diagnosis
Imaging study
• Ultrasonography
• To exclude specific anomalies of the extrahepatic biliary system, particularly
choledochal cysts. Today, a diagnosis of choledochal cyst should be made in
utero using fetal ultrasonography.
• absence of the gallbladder and no dilatation of the biliary tree the
sensitivity and specificity of these findings < 80%
Other test
• Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP)
• unavailable for infant
• Percutaneous liver biopsy
• The most valuable study for evaluating neonatal cholestasis
• Morbidity is low in patients without coagulopathy.
• It can differentiate between obstructive and hepatocellular causes of
cholestasis, with 90% sensitivity and specificity for biliary atresia.
• Intraoperative cholangiography
• definitively demonstrates anatomy and patency of the extrahepatic biliary
tract
• when liver biopsy findings suggest an obstructive etiology
Management
• Medical Care
• No primary medical treatment is relevant.
• The objective is to confirm the diagnosis.
• Surgical
• Once biliary atresia is suspected surgical intervention for a definitive
diagnosis (intraoperative cholangiogram) and therapy (Kasai
portoenterostomy).
• dissection into the porta hepatis and creation of a Roux-en-Y anastomosis
with a 35-cm to 40-cm retrocolic jejunal segment
Complication
• In the early postoperative phase, an unsuccessful anastomosis with
failure to achieve adequate bile drainage biliary cirrhosis
• Progressive liver disease and portal hypertension (60%) of infants
who achieved initial surgical success.
• Cholangitis (50%)
• Hepatocellular carcinoma
• Progressive fibrosis and biliary cirrhosis develop in children who do
not drain bile, and liver transplantation is the only option for long-
term survival.
Prognosis
• The initial success rate of Kasai portoenterostomy (is 60-80%.
• Less likely to require early liver transplantation if the portoenterostomy is
performed when they are < 10 weeks.
• The transplant-free survival rate Kasai is 53.7% (1year) and 46.7% (2years)
• Factors that predict improved long-term outcome after Kasai:
• Younger than 10 weeks (in some reports, 2 mo) at operation
• Preoperative histology and ductal remnant size
• Presence of bile in hepatic lobular zone 1
• Absence of portal hypertension, cirrhosis, and associated anomalies
• Experience of the surgical team
• Postoperative clearing of jaundice
Anorectal Malformation
• Wide spectrum of defects in the development of the lowest portion
of the intestinal and urogenital tracts
• imperforate anus
• When a malformation of the anus is present, the muscles and nerves
associated with the anus often have a similar degree of malformation
• The spine and urogenital tract may also be involved.
• Interference with anorectal structure development at varying stages leads
to various anomalies
Epidemiology
Frequency
• 1 per 5000 live births.
• Race and sex: No known race and sex predilection
Mortality/Morbidity
• rarely fatal
• some associated anomalies (cardiac, renal) can be life threatening
• Intestinal perforation or postoperative septic complications
Morbidity
• Malformation-related morbidity
• Constipation. mild malformations rectal dilation.
• Severe forms : fecal and urinary incontinence.
• Surgery-related morbidity
• line infections and pneumonia.
• Wound infections or anastomotic breakdowns can occur in any intestinal
surgery.
• injury to surrounding pelvic organs because these organs (such as
vagina or urethra and seminal vesicles)
Clinical Finding
• Prenatal ultrasonography are often normal
• Most children with an anorectal malformation are identified upon
routine newborn physical examination
• Delayed presentation is often the result of incomplete initial
examination.
• Subtle malformations, such as those in some children with perineal
fistula that may look normal to the casual glance
• Often discovered within 24 hours when the newborn is observed to
have distention and has failed to pass meconium and a more
thorough examination is performed.
Investigation
• Urinalysis : Recto-orinaria fistule
• Lateral pelvic radiography at 24 hours,
• holding the baby upside down and using lateral radiography to observe the
level of gas in the distal rectum.
• Wait 24 hours after birth maximal pelvic pouch distension cross-
table lateral pelvic radiography with a radio-opaque marker on the anal
dimple with the child in the prone position and the hips slightly raised
• If the pouch is observed within 1 cm of the marker, some surgeons offer
primary repair without colostomy. For pouches farther than 1 cm,
colostomy is performed.
Management
• Treat life threatening comorbid condition first
• Do not give enteral feeding intravenous hydration
• Urinary fistula is suspected broad spectrum antibiotic
• Investigate other congenital anomaly
• Surgery:
• Cut back incission
• Primary neonatal pull-through without colostomy
• Neonatal colostomy pull-through colostomy clossure
Meckel’s Diverticulum
• The most common congenital abnormality of the small intestine (2%
population)
• caused by the failure of the omphalomesenteric duct to completely
obliterate at 5-7 weeks' gestation.
• Despite the availability of modern imaging techniques, diagnosis is
challenging
• Usually asymptomatic
• Complications can require clinical attention
• One type involves ectopic mucosal tissue and most often leads to GI bleeding in
younger children.
• In the second type, an obstruction, inflammation, or, rarely, perforation of the bowel
is present.
Clinical Finding
• History
• Most patients are asymptomatic incidental finding when a barium
study or laparotomy is performed
• Symptomatic Meckel diverticulum is virtually synonymous with a
complication obstruction, ectopic tissue, or inflammation
• bowel obstruction (35%), hemorrhage (32%), diverticulitis (22%),
umbilical fistula (10%), and other umbilical lesions (1%).
• In children, hematochezia is the most common presenting sign
painless rectal bleeding
• Pain often delays the correct diagnosis.
• The clinical presentation includes abdominal pain in the
periumbilical area that radiates to the right lower quadrant.
• Intestinal obstruction abdominal pain, bilious vomiting,
abdominal tenderness, distension, and hyperactive bowel
sounds upon examination.
• Palpable abdominal mass.
• intestinal ischemia or infarction acute peritoneal signs
and lower GI bleeding.
• Diverticulitis:
• focal or diffuse abdominal tenderness, rebound
tenderness
• Late finding: Abdominal distention and hypoactive bowel
sounds
• Suppurative : abdominal pain and periumbilical cellulitis
Differential diagnoses
• Colitis, Colonic Vascular Malformations • Pediatric Appendicitis
• Emergent Treatment of Gastroenteritis • Pediatric Constipation
• Gastrointestinal Duplications • Pediatric Crohn Disease
• Henoch-Schonlein Purpura • Pediatric Hirschsprung Disease
• Intestinal Polyposis Syndromes • Pediatric Urolithiasis
• Intestinal duplication • Peptic Ulcer Disease
• Intussusception • Peutz-Jeghers Syndrome
• Juvenile Polyps • Postoperative Adhesions
• Necrotizing Enterocolitis • Ulcerative Colitis in Children
• Volvulus
Laboratory Study
• Routine laboratory findings are not helpful in establishing the
diagnosis but are necessary to manage a patient with GI bleeding
along with a type and cross.
• Hemoglobin and hematocrit levels are low in the setting of anemia
or bleeding.
• Ongoing bleeding from a Meckel diverticulum iron deficiency
anemia.
• Low albumin and low ferritin levels may lead to a diagnosis of
inflammatory bowel disease.
Imaging study
• Meckel’s Scanning
• Barium studies
• USG
Treatment and Management
• Medical care
• depends on the clinical presentation
• Acutely ill establish an iv line immediately, start crystalloid fluids, and keep the
patient on nothing by mouth (NPO) status.
• Obtain the blood investigations suggested above with a type and cross match
transfusion if indicated
• Intestinal obstruction: nasogastric decompression plain radiography of the abdomen.
• Bleeding, specifically a dark tarry stool gastric lavage to rule out upper GI bleeding. If
the gastric lavage is negative for bleeding, consider an upper endoscopy and flexible
sigmoidoscopy.
• The surgery team should be consulted to discuss the possible need for laparoscopy
and/or laparotomy
• Surgical : resection of the diverticle
• antibiotics whenever acute Meckel diverticulitis, strangulation,
perforation, or signs of small bowel obstruction or sepsis are
present.
Hirschsprung disease
• developmental disorder
absence of ganglia in the distal
colon, resulting in a functional
obstruction
• Most cases are diagnosed in the
newborn period considered in
any newborn that fails to pass
meconium within 24-48 hours of
birth.
• Contrast enema is useful in the
diagnosis, full-thickness rectal
biopsy remains the criterion
standard.
• Hirschsprung disease is strongly associated with Down syndrome; 5-
15% of patients with Hirschsprung disease also have trisomy 21.
• Other associations include Waardenburg syndrome, congenital
deafness, malrotation, gastric diverticulum, and intestinal atresia.
• definitive treatment: remove aganglionic bowel and restore
continuity of the healthy bowel with the distal rectum, with or
without an initial intestinal diversion.
Pathophysiology
• The absence of enteric neurons within the myenteric and
submucosal plexus of the rectum and/or colon.
• Enteric neurons are derived from the neural crest and migrate
caudally with the vagal nerve fibers along the intestine.
• These ganglion cells arrive in the proximal colon by 8 weeks'
gestation and in the rectum by 12 weeks' gestation.
• Arrest in migration leads to an aganglionic segment. This results in
clinical Hirschsprung disease.
Epidemiology
• Prevalence :1 per 5000
• Mortality/Morbidity
• The overall mortality of Hirschsprung enterocolitis is 25-30%, which accounts for almost
all of the mortality from Hirschsprung disease.
• Sex
• Hirschsprung disease is approximately 4 times more common in males than females.
• Age
• Nearly all children with Hirschsprung disease are diagnosed during the first 2 years of life.
• Approximately one half of children affected with this disease are diagnosed before they
are aged 1 year.
• A small number of children with Hirschsprung disease are not recognized until much later
in childhood or adulthood
Clinical Finding
• History
• Newborn: abdominal distention, failure of passage of meconium
within the first 48 hours of life, and repeated vomiting.
• A family history of a similar condition is present in about 30% of
cases.
• Rarely experience soiling and overflow incontinence.
• Malnourished early satiety, abdominal discomfort, and
distention associated with chronic constipation.
• Older infants and children: chronic constipation, refractory to
usual treatment protocols and may require daily enema therapy.
• Hirschsprung enterocolitis, a fatal complication, typically
presents with abdominal pain, fever, foul-smelling and/or bloody
diarrhea, as well as vomiting. If not recognized early,
enterocolitis may progress to sepsis, transmural intestinal
necrosis, and perforation.
Phisical finding
• Infants
• tympanitic abdominal distention and symptoms of intestinal obstruction.
• acute enterocolitis or with neonatal meconium plug syndrome.
• Children:
• usually diagnosed by age 2 years.
• chronic constipation
• marked abdominal distention with palpable dilated loops of colon.
• Rectal examination: empty rectal vault and may result in the forceful expulsion
of fecal material upon completion of examination.
• Less commonly, older children with Hirschsprung disease may be
chronically malnourished and/or present with Hirschsprung enterocolitis.
Imaging
• Sign of obstruction, colon dilatation, enterocolitis
• Unprepared single-contrast barium enema: If perforation and
enterocolitis are not suspected
• identify a transition zone between a narrowed aganglionic segment and a
dilated and normally innervated segment.
• reveal a nondistensible rectum, which is a classic sign of Hirschsprung
disease.
• A transition zone may not be apparent in neonates, because of insufficient
time to develop colonic dilation, or in infants who have undergone rectal
washouts, examinations, or enemas.
Other test
• Rectal manometry: In older children who present with chronic
constipation and an atypical history for either Hirschsprung disease
or functional constipation
• Children with Hirschsprung disease fail to demonstrate reflex
relaxation of the internal anal sphincter in response to inflation of a
rectal balloon.
• Suction biopsy or resection absence of ganglion cells and
hypertrophic extrinsic nerve fibers.
Treatment and Management
• Medical care
• high-grade intestinal obstruction: intravenous hydration, withholding of
enteral intake, and intestinal and gastric decompression.
• digital rectal examination or normal saline rectal irrigations 3-4 times daily.
• Administer broad-spectrum antibiotics to patients with enterocolitis.
• Immediately request surgical consultation for biopsy confirmation and
treatment plan.
• While awaiting surgical intervention in the event of a planned single-stage
pull-through procedure, the baby should receive scheduled vaccinations.
• Surgical care
• Patient's age, mental status, ability to perform activities of daily living,
length of the aganglionic segment, degree of colonic dilation, and presence
of enterocolitis.
• leveling colostomy, which is a colostomy at the level of normal bowel; a
staged procedure with placement of a leveled colostomy followed by a pull-
through procedure; or a single-stage pull-through procedure.
• The single-stage pull-through procedure may be performed with
laparoscopic, open, or transanal techniques.
Prognosis
• The outcome is generally quite good.
• Most children obtain fecal continence and control.
• Children with other significant comorbidities, such as major genetic
abnormalities, may have lower rates of continence.
Abdominal Wall Defects
(Omphalocele and Gastroschisis)
• Ventral abdominal body wall defects that includes gastroschisis and
omphalocele, are relatively common
Epidemiology
• In US:
• Gastroschisis: 1 case in 2,229 births (about 1,871 infants each year)
• Omphalocele: 1 case in 5,386 births (about 775 babies annually)
Omphalocele
• The intestines do not return to the
abdominal cavity; rather, they remain
within the extra-embryonic coelom
(amniotic cavity) bounded by the
umbilical ring
• Omphaloceles
• associated with increased maternal
age.
• occur in twins, consecutive children,
and different generations of the same
family.
• associated with trisomy 13, 18, and 21
(in 25%-50 % of cases) and with
Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome
gastroschisis
• There appears to be a weakness in
the body wall (caused by defective
ingrowth of mesoderm, or impaired
midline fusion, or inappropriate
apoptosis) that allows the intestines
to herniate through this defect into
the amniotic cavity
• occurs in young mothers with low
gravida
• associated with prematurity and
small-for-gestational-age (SGA)
infants, and denotes in utero growth
retardation.
• The clustering of cases (number and
severity) suggests a multifactorial
etiology, including environmental
factors acting upon susceptible
hosts.
Other abdominal wall defects
• Urachal remnants and omphalomesenteric duct malformations
• Bladder exstrophy
• Prune-belly syndrome
• Cloacal exstrophy
Thank You
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Siklus Laktasi (menyusui)
a. Laktogenesis stad 1: dr pertengahan
kehamilan – hr saat melahirkan awal
pembentukan susu
b. Laktogenesis stad 2: hr ke 3-ke 8, sekresi
susu, payudara terasa penuh & hangat
c. Galaktopoeisis: dr hr ke9-awal involusi,
mempertahankan sekresi asi
d. Involusi ( sekitar 40 hr stlh terakhir
menyusui): penambahan makanan padat,
penurunan sekresi asi
179
Penghambat prod ASI
1. Faktor penghambat: bila saluran ASI penuh mengirim tanda utk
mengurangi prod kosongkan saluran teratur (ASI ekslusif & tanpa
jadwal)
2. Sress/rasa sakit: menghambat pelepasan oksitosin
3. Penyapihan
180
Mengapa Harus ASI?
ASI diciptakan sangat species spesifik
Mengapa harus ASI?
Kolostrum Enzim
Hind
Biofaktor
milk/foremilk
ASI
Limfosit
prematur
Sesuai
kebutuhan
bayi
Penting untuk
pertumbuhan
otak bayi
Standar Emas Makanan Bayi
188
Kerugian pemberian dot
• Aspirasi saat menyusu
• Maloklusi rahang (gigi tonggos)
• Caries gigi
• Tonsilitis
189
Anjuran pemberian ASI
• 0-6 bln: ASI eksklusif memenuhi 100% kebutuhan bayi
• 6-12 bln: ASI memenuhi 60-70% kebutuhan, memerlukan
MPASI yg adekuat
• > 12 bln: ASI memenuhi 30% kebutuhan, tetap diberikan utk
keuntungan lainnya
190
KENDALA MENYUSUI
1. KURANG DUKUNGAN KELUARGA DAN LINGKUNGAN
2. KURANG PERCAYA DIRI
3. NYERI KETIKA MENYUSUI, PUTTING LECET DAN BERDARAH
4. PENGGUNAAN BOTOL SUSU (SUSU FORMULA/ASI PERAH)
5. IBU BEKERJA
KURANG PENGETAHUAN TENTANG ASI
KURANG DUKUNGAN
KELUARGA/LINGKUNGAN
• ORANG TUA TERLALU KHAWATIR
• TERLALU “SAYANG”
• “PENGALAMAN” ORANG TUA DULU
• PENGHAKIMAN ORANG SEKITAR
• PALING PENTING DUKUNGAN SUAMI
SOLUSI:
TINGKATKAN PENGETAHUAN TENTANG ASI SEJAK HAMIL
SOSIALISASI KE KELUARGA
MELAHIRKAN DI RS YANG SAYANG IBU-BAYI (BREASTFEEFING FRIENDLY HOSPITAL)
IBU KURANG PERCAYA DIRI
• PENYEBAB
• PENGHAKIMAN ORANG SEKITAR, TERMASUK TENAGA KESEHATA
• ANAK REWEL
• PUTTING KECIL, PUTTING DATAR, PUTTING BESAR, PD KECIL
• ASI SEDIKIT
SOLUSI:
TINGKATKAN PENGETAHUAN TTG ASI
KUNJUNGI KONSELOR LAKTASI
NYERI KETIKA MENYUSUI,
PUTTING LECET DAN BERDARAH
• PENYEBAB
• KESALAHAN TEKNIK MENYUSUI (POSISI DAN PERLEKATAN KURANG BENAR)
• ANATOMI MULUT DAN LIDAH BAYI
SOLUSI:
PERBAIKI POSISI/PERLEKATAN
KUNJUNGI KONSELOR MENYUSUI
MELEKATKAN BAYI
RECLINING POSITION
PENGGUNAAN BOTOL SUSU/ALAT LAIN
• Dengan tangan
• Pompa manual
• Pompa elektrik
Memeras ASI dengan tangan
Memerah dg tangan
Pompa manual
X
Pompa elektrik
Pilih yang mana?
• Tergantung selera
• Pompa elektrik paling kuat dan cepat
mengeluarkan ASI
• Tangan paling nyaman, ekonomis dan praktis
• Hal terpenting:
• Keluarkan ASI hingga habis
• Keluarkan ASI sesering mungkin
Aturan umum
• Cuci tangan dengan sabun
• Gunakan pompa dan wadah ASI yang
bersih
• Simpan dalam porsi sekali minum bayi
• Boleh mencampur ASI berbeda perasan
ke dalam botol yang sama (per hari)
• Beri label
Penyimpanan ASI Segar ASI Beku ASI yang sudah Sisa minum
yang sudah dihangatkan
dicairkan
Cangkir
Bukan diminumkan
Bahaya tersedak
Sendok
Botol tidak disarankan
• Penyakit – penyakit
• Inflamasi dan Infeksi
• Kelainan kongenital
• Kelainan metabolik
• Keganasan
• Kegawat daruratan
• Kasus pada usia bayi, anak – anak, sampai dewasa
• Pendekatan multidisiplin :
• Ilmu Kedokteran Klinis Medis
• Ilmu Kedokteran Klinis Bedah
• Getah Pankreas:
Amilase
Lipase
Tripsinogen
• Pemeriksaan penunjang
• Menegakkan diagnosis
Dispepsia
• Istilah yang digunakan untuk suatu sindrom atau kumpulan gejala yang terdiri dari :
• Anamnesis yg baik
• Pemeriksaan fisik
• Mengidentifikasi kelainan intraabdomen/intralumen yang padat (misal tumor),
organomegali, atau nyeri tekan
• Laboratorium
• Mengidentifikasi infeksi (leukositosis)
• Pankreatitis (amilase, lipase)
• Keganasan saluran cerna (CEA, CA 19-9, AFP)
• Ultrasonografi
• Kelainan intraabdomen misal batu kandung empedu, kolesistitis, sirosis hepatis dsb
Pendekatan diagnostik Dispepsia
• Endoskopi (esofagogastroduodenoskopi)
• pean BB
• Anemia
• Muntah hebat
• Hematemesis
• Melena
• Keluhan berlangsung lama dan progresif
• Usia > 45 tahun
• Keluarga dengan riw.kanker lambung
Pendekatan diagnostik Dispepsia
• Endoskopi (esofagogastroduodenoskopi
• Gangguan organik
Alarm symptoms
(anemia, penurunan BB, hematemesis, melena dsb)
gagal
Tx definitif Dispepsia
fungsional
Disfagia
• Gangguan neuromuskular
• keganasan
Etiologi Disfagia
• Fase orofaringeal
• Serebrovaskular,
• myastenia gravis,
• kelainan muskular,
• tumor,
•divertikulum zenker
• Gangguan motilitas/ sfingter esofagus atas
Etiologi Disfagia
• Fase esofageal
• Inflamasi
• Striktura esofagus
• Tumor
• Penekanan dari luar esofagus
• Akalasia
• Spasme esofagus difus
• skleroderma
Pendekatan Diagnostik Disfagia
• Esofagogastroskopi (endoskopi)
• Barium meal (esofagografi)
• Manometri esofagus
Alur tatalaksana diagnostik disfagia
Anamnesis dan Pemeriksaan fisik
2. Sistem vestibular
• Dirangsang oleh posisi atau infeksi vestibulum (reseptor histamin H1 dan muskarinik)
Mual dan Muntah
• Obat-obatan:
• OAINS, digoksin, eritromisin
• Laboratorium
• Aspirasi melalui NGT
• Esofagogastroskopi
• Barium meal
Alur Diagnostik Mual Muntah
Anamnesis dan pemeriksaan fisik Dehidrasi
Terduga Terduga
metabolik obstruksi
• Hematemesis:
• muntah darah ( darah segar atau kehitaman spt kopi)
• Indikasi adanya perdarahan saluran cerna bagian atas (proksimal ligamentum treitz)
• Melena:
• Feses warna hitam, biasanya berasal perdarahan SCBA
• Perdarahan usus halus dan proksimal kolon
Perdarahan Saluran Cerna
• Maroon stool :
• Feses berwarna merah hati
• Perdarahan kolon bagian proksimal (ileocecal)
Etiologi perdarahan saluran cerna
• SCBA :
• SCBB
• Dibagi :
• Diare akut
• Diare sub akut
• Diare kronik : berlangsung > 2mgg
Diare akut
Etiologi:
• Virus
• Protozoa
• Giardia lambdia
• Entamoeba hystolitica
• Bakteri yg memproduksi enterotoksin
• S. Aureus, C. Perfringens, E. Coli, V cholera, C difficile
• Bakteri yg menimbulkan inflamasi mukosa usus
• Shigella, salmonela, yersinia
Diare Akut
Etiologi:
• Iskemia intestinal
• Kolitis radiasi
Pendekatan Diagnosis Diare Akut
• Kerusakan mukosa
• Feses cair, darah(-), nyeri perut tut umbilikus, mual, muntah, kembung
Etiologi
• Berdasarkan patogenesis, diare kronik dibagi mjd 4 kategori:
• Diare osmotik
• Diare sekretorik
• Diare krn gangguan motilitas
• Diare inflamatorik
Diare osmotik
• Intoleransi laktosa
• Obat laksatif (lactulosa, magnesium sulfat), antasida
Diare sekretorik
• faktor inflamasi
• Misalnya inflammatory bowel disease
Diare kronik
• Malabsorpsi
• Penyakit usus halus
• Reseksi sebagian usus
• Obstruksi limfatik
• Defisiensi enzim pankreas
• Pertumbuhan bakteri yg berlebihan
Infeksi kronis:
G lambia, E hystolitica, nematoda usus, immunocompromized
Pendekatan Diagnosis Diare kronik
• Pemeriksaan feses
• Pemeriksaan darah
• Gangguan elektrolit, anemia, hipoalbuminemia
Konstipasi
• Pola hidup
• Diet rendah serat, kurang minum, bab tidak teratur, kurang OR
• Obat-obatan
• Antikolinergik, penyekat Calcium, Al-OH, opiat, suplemen besi
• Penyakit sistemik
• Hipotiroidisme, PGK, DM
Etiologi Konstipasi
• Penyakit neurologi
• Hirschprung, lesi medula spinalis, neuropati otonom
• Pemeriksaan Fisik
• Menilai tanda sistemik dan lokal
• Massa intraabdomen, peristaltik usus, colok dubur
Pendekatan Diagnosis Konstipasi
• Laboratorium
• Kolonoskopi
• Barium enema
• Manometri anorektal
Nyeri Perut
• Berasal dari:
• viseral abdomen
• bersifat tumpul, rasa terbakar, samar batas lokasinya
• Peritoneum parietal
• Bersifat tajam dan lokasinya lebih jelas
Nyeri Perut
• Kelainan mukosa
• Tukak peptik, IBD, kolitis infeksi, esofagitis
• Obstruksi viseral
• Ileus obstruksi, kolik bilier, batu renal
Etiologi Nyeri Perut
• Gangguan vaskular
• Iskemia atau infark intestinal
• Gangguan motilitas
• IBS, dispepsia
Pendekatan diagnosis nyeri perut
• Lokasi Nyeri
• Kualitas nyeri
Intensitas nyeri
• Akut
• Urutan intensitas nyeri dari hebat smp relatif ringan
• Perforasi ulkus pankreatitis akut kolik ginjal ileus obstruktif
kolesistitis apendisitis tukak peptik gastroenteritis esofagitis
• Kronis
• Adanya Peran faktor psikologis
Pendekatan diagnosis nyeri perut
• Pemeriksaan penunjang
• Laboratorium
• Radiologi
• Endoskopi
Pendekatan klinis ikterus
• Anamnesis:
• Warna tinja dan air seni, gatal, mual, muntah, nyeri perut
• Keluarga
• Ikterus berulang berhubungan dng stres, infeksi, kehamilan, obat tertentu
Pendekatan klinis ikterus
• Pemeriksaan Fisik
• Bekas garukan
• Spider nevi
• Eritema palmaris
• Ginekomasti
• Atrofi testis
• Edema tungkai
• asites
Pendekatan klinis ikterus
• Laboratorium
• UL
• Bilirubin serum
• SGPT, SGOT
• ALP, GGT
• DL, RETIKULOSIT
• Seromarker virus hepatitis : HBsAg, anti HCV, IgM anti HAV
• Parameter autoimun: ANA test, anti LKM, SMA
Pendekatan klinis ikterus
• Radiologi
• USG
• CT Scan
• Biopsi
• Kolangiografi
• ERCP
• PTC
Alur Diagnostik Ikterus
Urinalisis
Bilirubin serum total, direk
CT/USG
Diagnosis blm tegak Test autoimun
intrahepatal ekstrahepatal
Diagnosis blm tegak
Biopsi / kolangiografi
Penyakit Inflamasi dan Infeksi Pada Sistem
Hepatobilier Pankreas
dr. Ardyarini Dyah Savitri, SpPD
INFLAMASI DAN INFEKSI
Inflamasi
• Reaksi jaringan akibat adanya cedera pada tingkat seluler
• Tanda: rubor (eritema), kalor (panas), tumor (massa), dolor (nyeri), fungsiolesa
• Ada 2: akut (jam – hari, sel PMN) dan kronis (minggu –bulan,limfosit, monosit,
makrofag, sel plasma, jaringan parut)
• Penyebab:
1. Infeksi
2. Alergi dan autoimun
3. Trauma
• Infeksi
Inflamasi yang diakibatkan oleh bakteri, virus, fungus, atau toksin
Hepar
• Fungsi Hati:
1. Metabolisme karbohidrat, lemak, protein, vitamin D
Protein asam amino ammonia ureum
2. Sintesis empedu, protein plasma, factor koagulasi
3. Penyimpanan glikogen, protein, vitamin B12
4. Ekskresi bilirubin
5. Inaktifasi / detoksifikasi hormone, obat, toksin
• Metabolisme bilirubin :
1. Pembentukan bilirubin
2. Transpor plasma
3. Liver uptake
4. Konjugasi
5. Ekskresi bilier
Metabolisme Bilirubin
Metabolisme Bilirubin
Ikterus
Prehepatik:
• Kecepatan pemecahan sel darah merah yang tinggi
• BTT meningkat, urobilinogen ekskresi dalam urine dan faeces
Intrahepatik:
• Tidak mampu melakukan konjugasi bilirubin atau mengekskresikannya, sehingga BT dan
BTT naik
• Misal: hepatitis, sirosis hati, metastase hati, obat – obat yang dimetabolisme di hati
Post hepatic:
• Gangguan pada bilier dan pancreas
• BT menumpuk di darah bilirubin urine meningkat
Hepatitis
• Menggambarkan kondisi terjadinya inflamasi pada hati
• Penyebab:
1. Infeksi
Virus, bakteri, jamur, parasit
2. Non infeksi
Alkoohol, obat, autoimun, penyakit metabolik
Hepatitis A
• Disebut juga dengan epidemic jaundice, hepatitis epidemic, catharral jaundice,
campaign jaundice
• Angka kejadian cukup tinggi di dunia, mencapai 1,5 juta kasus per tahun
• Banyak pada negara sanitasi buruk, kondisi social ekonomi rendah
• Disebabkan oleh virus hepatitis A (virus RNA), family Picornaviridae
• Penularan fekal oral, dengan masa inkubasi 14 – 28 hari
• Patogenesis: respon imun seluler, induksi kerusakan hepatosit
• Gambaran klinis:
1. Gejala prodromal +
2. Ikterus
3. Hepatomegali
Hepatitis A
Hepatitis A
Sindrom Pasca Hepatitits A:
• Perjalanan Klinis:
1. Fase imunotoleransi
Fase replikasi, VHB tinggi (HBsAg tinggi, HBeAg +, anti HBe negative, HBV DNA tinggi,
SGPT normal)
2. Fase imunoaktif atau imuno clearance (HBeAg -, HBsAg rendah, anti HBe +/-, SGPT tinggi)
2. Fase non replikatif atau fase residual (SGPT normal, HBeAg -, antiHBe +)
Hepatitis B
• Tatalaksana:
Akut: Suportif, simptomatik
Antiviral hanya untuk hepatitis fulminant, imunokompromise
Vaksinasi – Imunoglobulin
• Manifestasi Klinis:
1. Asimptomatik s/d flu like syndrome
2. Ikterus
• Penyebab:
1. Alcoholic liver disease
2. Hepatitis C kronik
3. Hepatitis B Kronik
4. NASH, dll
Sirosis Hepatis
• Manifestasi Klinis
1. Kompensata, sering asimptomatis, diketahui secara tidak sengaja melalui tes faal hati, radiologi, autopsy
2. Dekompensata, sering dengan komplikasi, seperti perdarahan varises, peritonitis bacterial spontan,
ensefalopati hepatis, icterus, spider naevi, caput medusa, eritema palmaris, ginekomasti, asites, sindrom
hepatorenal
• Diagnosis:
1. Biopsy (gold standard)
2. USG (kurang sensitive, namun spesifik)
3. Endoskopi
• Lakukan anamnesis teliti pada pasien dengan gejala hepatitis akut dan atau icterus
mendadak disertai gangguan kesadaran yang nyata (ensefalo hepatic) dengan peningkatan
fungsi koagulasi
• Tatalaksana:
1. Karena melibatkan disfungsi multiorgan, maka tatalaksana ditujukan pada manifestasi klinis yang
terjadi
2. Transplantasi hati
Abses Hepar
• Lesi supuratif pada hati yang diakibatkan oleh kuman yang menginvasi dan tumbuh
pada jaringan hati
• Jalur masuk: trauma langsung pada hati, pembuluh darah, saluran empedu
• Bentuk:
1. Amebik
Usia muda, laki > perempuan
Penyebab Entamoeba histolytica, karena tertelan kista amuba (makanan tercemar)
2. Piogenik
Usia paruh baya ke atas, laki = perempuan
Sering infeksi berasal dari saluran bilier
Penyebab polimikrobial, tersering E.Coli, Klebsiela
3. Campuran
Epidemiologi
• Abses hepar amobik (AHA) : Salah satu komplikasi dari amoebiasis
• AHA lebih sering terjadi daripada abses hepar piogenik AHP
• AHA biasanya diawali oleh disentri
• Biasanya terjadi paa daerah tropis subtropis dengan higienitas
rendah
Abses Hepar
• Manifestasi Klinis:
1. Tanda infeksi
2. Nyeri perut kanan atas, jalan membungkuk ke depan
3. Dapat disertai dengan kelainan pada paru kanan, berupa pekak pada perkusi, penurunan suara nafas
• Pemeriksaan Penunjang :
• Foto Thoraks
• USG abdomen
• Biopsi Hati
• Darah Lengkap
• CT scan abdomen
• Terapi:
1. Drainage
2. Antibiotik : metronidazole 3 x 750 mg selama 7-10 hari
Perlemakan Hati Non Alkoholik
• Terjadinya penumpukan lemak pada organ hati (pada biopsy hati: ditemukan minimal 5
– 10% sel lemak dari keseluruhan hepatosit), pada pasien yang tidak konsumsi alkohol
Spektrum Non Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
(NAFLD)
• Fatty Liver (NAFL)
• Non Alcoholic Steatohepatitis (NASH)
• Sirosis NASH
Manifestasi Klinis
• Sebagian besar tanpa gejala
• Rasa lelah
• Tidak enak di perut kanan atas
• Hepatomegali
• Dapat ditemukan tanda –tanda sirosis
Fatty Liver
• Faktor resiko: obesitas, diabetes mellitus, dislipidemia
• Diagnosis:
1. Biopsi Hati (gold standard)
2. Laboratorium: SGOT –SGPT meningkat ringan
3. USG : hati yang tertutup oleh lemak sampai dengan pengerutan hati
• Tatalaksana:
1. Kontrol factor resiko: menurunkan berat badan
2. Terapi farmakologis
Antidiabetik dan insulin sensitizer : menurunkan produksi glikogenesis di hati,
meningkatkan kerja insulin di hati
Antihiperlipidemia
Antioksidan
Hepatoprotektor
Kolesistitis Akut
• Peradangan akut pada kantung empedu yang terjadi akibat adanya
penyumbatan pada ductus sistikus dan terjadi infeksi bakteri
• Penyebab :
• Batu kantung empedu
• Iskemia dan infeksi
• Gangguan motilitas
• Trauma kimia
• Penyakit kolagen
• Reaksi alergi
• Manifestasi klinis:
1. Nyeri abdomen sampai kolik bilier
2. Murphy sign
3. Demam
4. Mual muntah
5. Lab: lekositosis, hiperamilasemia, gangguan fungsi hati
6. USG: batu dengan penebalan kantong empedu
• Terapi:
1. Antibiotika
2. Analgetik
3. Operasi
Kole(doko)litiasis
• Batu empedu umumnya ditemukan di kandung empedu, tapi dapat bermigrasi melalui ductus sistikus ke
saluran empedu menjadi batu saluran empedu
• Fat, forty, female, family
• Patogenesis:
1. Hipersaturasi kolesterol dalam kandung empedu
2. Percepatan kristalisai kolesterol
3. Gangguan motilitas kandung empedu
• Manifestasi:
1. Asimptomatik
2. Simtomatik (kolik bilier)
3. Dengan komplikasi (kolesistitis akut; icterus; kolangitis: trias charcot, nyeri perut kanan atas, icterus, demam;
pankreatitis)
• Tatalaksana: kolesistektomi
Pankreatitis Akut
• Peradangan pada pancreas
• Ada 2:
1. Pankreatitis Akut
Fungsi Pankreas dapat kembali normal
2. Pankreatitis Kronis
Terdapat kerusakan permanen
• Etiologi:
1. Batu bilier
2. Infeksi
3. Idiopatik
4. HiperTG
• Patogenesis:
Kegagalan sistem perlindungan aktifasi efek enzimatik enzim digestif (proteolitik: tripsin, kimotripsin, karboksipeptidase,
elastase, fosfolipase A, amilase, lipase) karena refluks cairan empedu, refluks isi duodenum
Pankreatitis Akut
• Manifestasi Klinis:
1. Nyeri tiba- tiba, makin memberat, menjalar ke punggung, atau seluruh abdomen
2. Demam
3. Kolaps sistem kardiovaskuler, gangguan nafas
4. Tanda peritonitis, ileus paralitik
5. Ikterus
6. Laboratorium: amilase, lipase meningkat 2 kali, lekositosis, fungsi hati ↑
7. Penyulit: sepsis, hiperglikemia, hipokalsemia, gangguan multiorgan
• Tatalaksana:
1. Perawatan ICU
2. Resusitasi Ciaran
3. Perawatan pernafasan
4. Pipa nasogastric
5. Terapi infeksi
6. Antinyeri
7. Terapi penyulit metabolic
8. Gizi
Terima Kasih
Gizi buruk
Primer
keadaan kekurangan gizi yang disebabkan
rendahnya konsumsi energi dan protein dalam
makanan sehari-hari sehingga tidak memenuhi
Angka Kecukupan Gizi (AKG) dan sering disertai
kurang zat gizi mikro (vitamin dan mineral)
Sekunder
keadaan kekurangan gizi yang disebabkan karena anak
menderita penyakit utama seperti diare kronis,
penyakit jantung bawaan, penyakit keganasan dll.
Gizi Buruk
Gizi Buruk
Gizi Buruk
AKIBAT
GIZI BURUK
Kurang Gizi
KESEHATAN
• Daya tahan tubuh PENDIDIKAN
• Angka kesakitan PENDAPATAN
• Angka kematian
Penurunan
Produktivitas Kualitas SDM Indonesia tahun 2002
peringkat 110 dari 273 negara
(Laporan UNDP)
DETEKSI DINI KASUS GIZI BURUK
PENY.RINGAN
GZ.KURANG RUMAH TANGGA
Energy balance: negative
INPUT:
Infection
Poverty
Organic dis.
etc.
OUTPUT:
Infection
Chronic diarrhea/
Malabsorption
Hypermetabolism
etc.
PEMERIKSAAN
PEMERIKSAAN BALITA
BALITA GIZI
GIZI BURUK
BURUK
A.
A. Anamnesis
Anamnesis
Awal
Awal dan
dan Lanjutan
Lanjutan
B.
B. Pemeriksaan
Pemeriksaan Fisik
Fisik
Inspeksi,
Inspeksi, Palpasi
Palpasi && Auskultasi
Auskultasi
C.
C. Pemeriksaan
Pemeriksaan laboratorium
laboratorium
D.
D. Pemeriksaan
Pemeriksaan penunjang/Ro
penunjang/Ro
Anamnesa Awal
‘Puffy’
Edema
KEP berat : Kwashiorkor
Hepatomegali
Edema
Crazy pavement
dermatosis
GEJALA KLINIS ANAK GIZI BURUK
(KEP BERAT)
B. MARASMUS
• Tampak sangat kurus, hingga tulang
terbungkus kulit
• Wajah seperti orang tua
• Cengeng, rewel
• Kulit keriput, jaringan lemak subkutis sangat
sedikit sampai tidak ada (~pakai celana
longgar-baggy pants)
• Perut cekung
• Iga gambang
• Sering disertai: peny. infeksi (umumnya kronis
berulang) dan diare
KEP berat : Marasmus
Wajah
Rambut
Atrofi otot
Lemak SK <<
Iga gambang
Severe PEM : Marasmus + KP
lymphadenopathy
TATALAKSANA ANAK GIZI BURUK
• Medik : - medikamentosa :
obat-obatan
- fisik :
fisiotherapi
- psikis :
psikotherapi
HIPOGLIKEMI
HIPOTERMI
DEHIDRASI
ELEKTROLIT
INFEKSI
DIET
NUTRISI MIKRO (-) Fe (-) Fe
TUMBUH KEJAR
STIMULASI
TINDAK LANJUT
PENANGANAN
PENANGANAN TANDA
TANDA BAHAYA
BAHAYA
PROSES PENGOBATAN
A.Klasifikasi tanda bahaya
B.Hipoglikemia
C.Hipothermia
D.Renjatan
E.Dehidrasi
A. KLASIFIKASI TANDA BAHAYA
Perhatikan Tanda Bahaya, Hubungi dokter bila kejadian berikut muncul
Sunken eyes
Dehydration
Turgor :
ReSoMal (Rehidration Solution for Malnutrition)
A.
A. Gangguan
Gangguan Mata
Mata
B.
B. Gangguan
Gangguan Kulit
Kulit
C.
C. Diare
Diare Persisten
Persisten
D.
D. Anemia
Anemia
E.
E. Parasit/Cacing
Parasit/Cacing
F.
F. Alur
Alur Deteksi
Deteksi Dini
Dini && Rujukan
Rujukan TBC
TBC Anak
Anak
A.Gangguan
A.Gangguan Pada
Pada Mata
Mata Akibat
Akibat Kurang
Kurang Vitamin
Vitamin AA
Jika Mata Mengalami Tindakan
Hanya bercak Bitot Tidak perlu obat tetes mata
Nanah/Radang Beri tetes mata Kloramfenikol/Tetra 1%
Kekeruhan Kornea Beri kedua obat tersebut
Ulkus Kornea *Tetes mata khloramfenikol/tetra 1%
*Tetes mata atropin 1%
A.Gangguan Pada Mata Akibat Kurang Vitamin A
Beri
Beri anak
anak vitamin
vitaminAAsecara
secara oral
oral pada
pada hari
hari ke-1,
ke-1, 22 dan
dan 14
14
atau
atau sebelum
sebelum pulang
pulang dan
dan bila
bila terjadi
terjadi perburukan
perburukan
keadaan
keadaan klinis
klinis
dengan
dengan dosis:
dosis:
•• umur
umur >> 11 tahun
tahun :: 200.000
200.000 SI/kali
SI/kali
•• umur
umur 6-12
6-12 bulan
bulan :: 100.000
100.000 SI/kali
SI/kali
•• umur
umur 0-5
0-5 bulan
bulan :: 50.000
50.000 SI/kali
SI/kali
B. Gangguan Pada Kulit
B a l i t a :
1. Selera makan baik, makanan yg diberikan dihabiskan
2. Ada perbaikan kondisi mental
3. Sudah tersenyum, duduk, merangkak, berdiri,
berjalan, sesuai umurnya
4. Suhu tubuh berkisar antara 36,5 – 37,5 C
5. Tidak ada muntah atau diare
6. Tidak ada edema
7. Kenaikan berat badan > 5 g/kgBB/hr, 3 hari
berturutan atau kenaikan 50 g/kgBB/mgg, 2 minggu
berturut-turut
8. Pasien stabil walaupun masih gizi buruk
KRITERIA PEMULANGAN BALITA GIZI BURUK
Ibu / Pengasuh :
1. Dapat membuat makanan yg sesuai untuk tumbuh
kejar dirumah
2. Ibu mampu merawat serta memberikan makan
dengan benar kepada anak
Institusi Lapangan :
3. Institusi lapangan telah siap untuk menerima
rujukan pasca perawatan
STIMULASI SENSORIK DAN DUKUNGAN
EMOSIONAL PADA ANAK GIZI BURUK
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