CRYPTOGRAPHY

Secret Key
Cryptography
 Secret Key Cryptography
• Both encryption and decryption keys are the same and are kept secret
• The secret key must be known at both ends to perform encryption or
decryption (Fig)
• Secret Key algorithms are fast and they are used for encrypting\
decrypting high volume data
• Secret key cryptography is classified into two types
• Block Ciphers
• Stream Ciphers
 Stream Ciphers
Plaintext bits

Encryption Ciphertext bits

Keystream bits

• A stream cipher is a type of symmetric encryption in

which input data is encrypted one bit (sometime one
byte) at a time
• Examples of stream ciphers include SEAL,
TWOPRIME, RC4, A5
 Stream Ciphers
Plaintext bits (P)
Ciphertext bits(C)
Seed key Encryption
Keystream bits (K)
Key Generator

• To encrypt plaintext stream

– A random set of bits is generated from a seed key, called
keystream which is as long as the message
– Keystream bits are added modulo 2 to plaintext to form the
ciphertext stream
• To decrypt ciphertext stream
– use the same seed key to generate the same keystream used in
encryption
– Add the keystream modulo 2 to the ciphertext to retrieve the
plaintext
– i.e. C = P  K  C  K = (P  K)  K = P
 Block Cipher
Plaintext block Encryption Ciphertext block
e.g. 64 bits E e.g. 64 bits

Key K
 A block cipher is a type of symmetric encryption which operates on
blocks of data. Modern block ciphers typically use a block length of
128 bits or more
 Examples of block ciphers include DES, AES, RC6, and IDEA
 A block cipher breaks message into fixed sized blocks
 Takes one block (plaintext) at a time and transform it into another
block of the same length using a user provided secret key
 Decryption is performed by applying the reverse transformation to the
ciphertext block using the same secret key
 Most symmetric block ciphers are based on a Feistel Cipher Structure
(Explained in next slides)
 Properties of Good Ciphers:
Confusion and Diffusion
• In cryptography, confusion and diffusion are two properties of
the operation of a secure cipher which were identified by
Shannon in his paper, "Communication Theory of Secrecy
Systems" published in 1949
• Confusion refers to making the relationship between the key and
the ciphertext as complex and involved as possible
• This is achieved by having each cipher text digit be affected by
many plain text digits.
• Diffusion refers to the property that redundancy in the statistics
of the plaintext is "dissipated" in the statistics of the ciphertext
• Associate dependency of bits of the output to the bits of input
• In a cipher with good diffusion, flipping an input bit should change
each output bit with a probability of one half
 AIM of Confusion n Diffusion
• The mechanism of diffusion seeks to make the
statistical relationship between the plaintext
and ciphertext as complex as possible in order
to intruder attempts to deduce the key.
confusion seeks to make the relationship
between the statistics of the ciphertext and
the value of the encryption key as complex as
possible, again to intruder attempts to
discover the key.
 Achieved in cryptosystems
• In binary block ciphers, diffusion can achieved
by repeatedly performing some permutation
on the data followed by applying a function to
that permutation

• Confusion can be achieved by the use of a

complex substitution algorithm. A simple
linear substitution algorithm adds little
confusion.
 Motivation for Feistel Cipher
Structure
 In 1949, Claude Shannon also introduced the idea of substitution-
permutation (S-P) networks which form the basis of modern block ciphers
 S-P networks are based on the two primitive cryptographic operations:
substitution (S-box) & permutation (P-box)
 provide confusion and diffusion of message
 Motivation for Feistel Cipher
Structure
• S-P network: a special form of substitution- 
transposition product cipher
• Product cipher
– Two or more simple ciphers are performed in
sequence in such a way that the final result or
product is cryptographically stronger than any 
of the component ciphers

• Feistel cipher
– In 1970’s, Horst Feistel (IBM T.J. Watson
Research Labs) invented a suitable (practical)

structure which adapted Shannon’s S-P
network
– Encryption and decryption use the same
structure
 Feistel Cipher Structure
Plaintext (2w bits)

L0 R0
Round 1
w bits w bits
Ideas for each round:
1. partition input block into two halves
Round 2
2. process through multiple rounds
which
perform a substitution on left data half
based on a round function of right
half &
subkey
3. then have permutation swapping
halves Round n
Ln Rn
w bits w bits

Ciphertext (2w bits)

 Feistel Cipher Design Principles
 Block size
– increasing size improves security, but slows cipher
 Key size
– increasing size improves security, makes exhaustive key searching
harder, but may slow cipher
 Number of rounds
– increasing number improves security, but slows cipher
 Subkey generation
– greater complexity can make analysis harder, but slows cipher
 Round function
– greater complexity can make analysis harder, but slows cipher
 Fast software en/decryption & ease of analysis
– are more recent concerns for practical use and testing
Feistel Cipher Decryption
 Quiz
• Write a brief note on “What is Quine?” Give
an example.
• Draw the Feistal structure.
DES: a specific design

• Overview
• Encryption
• Decryption
• Security
 DES – Data Encryption Standard

• A Block cipher
• Data encrypted in 64-bit blocks using a 56-bit key
(effective key); Ciphertext is of 64-bit long
• Encrypts by series of substitution and transpositions (or
permutations)
 DES History
• The first commercially available Feistel Cipher was developed by IBM
in the 1960's; called Lucifer (by Feistel and Coppersmith)
• US National Bureau of Standards (NBS) issued a call for proposals in
1972
• Lucifer was refined, renamed the Data Encryption Algorithm (DEA)
in 1974
• Adopted as the standard by NBS in 1976
• DES is the first official U.S. government cipher intended for
commercial use
• Replacement standard (AES) is in effect May 26, 2002
– http://csrc.nist.gov/CryptoToolkit/aes/frn-fips197.pdf
 Input of DES
• Data: need to be broken into 64-bit blocks; add pad at the
last message if necessary.
 e.g. X =(3 5 0 7 7 F 1 0 A B 1 2 F C 6 5)HEX
• Secret key:
 Any string of 64 bits long including 8 parity bits.
 1 parity bit in each 8-bit byte of the key may be utilized for error
detection in key generation, distribution, and storage
 K=(k1…k7k8… k15k16 k17…k24…k32… k40… k48… k56… k64)
 The bits k8, k16, k24, k32, k40, k48, k56, k64 can be used for parity
check
 DES Encryption Diagram
64-bit plaintext

Initial permutation

K1 Iteration 1
16 sub-keys of Iteration 2
K2
each 48-bits

K16 Iteration 16

32-bit Swap

Inverse permutation

64-bit ciphertext
 Description
• DES operates on 64-bit blocks of plaintext. After an
initial permutation the block is broken into right half
and left half, each being 32 bits long
• There are 16 rounds of identical operations, call
function f, in which data are combined with 16 keys of
48 bits, one for each round
• After the 16th round the right and left halves are joined,
and a final permutation (the inverse of the initial
permutation) finishes the algorithm
• Because DES’s operation is very repetitive, it is readily
implementable in hardware, as well as software
 DES Round Structure
• Uses two 32-bit L & R halves
• As for any Feistel cipher can describe as:
Li = Ri–1
Ri = Li–1 xor F(Ri–1, Ki)
• Takes 32-bit R half and 48-bit sub-key and:
– expands R to 48-bits using perm E (Transposition)
– adds to subkey (Substitution)
– passes through 8 S-boxes to get 32-bit result (S&T)
– finally permutes this using 32-bit perm P (transposition)
DES Round Structure
 DES Module Operations
• Permutation boxes
– Specific boxes used in DES includes: PC1 and PC2 for sub-key
generation; IP, IP-1, E-box and P-box
• Substitution boxes
– 8 specific S-boxes are used in DES; This is the core of DES; This
step is non-linear
• Modulo 2 addition
– Addition in binary form; used in function f
• 32 bits registers
– Use only to store data. In the key generator two shift registers are
used to cyclically shift the data used in key generation
 Permutation

• Re-order the bit stream; e.g. 1st bit of input

stream is moved to 9th bit of output stream 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 Input
• Permutation: size of input and output are
the same; used in DES’ Initial
permutation, Inverse permutation, etc 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 Output
• Expansion: size of output is greater than
input stream, some input bits appear at two
places in output
• Compression box: size of output is smaller
than input stream, then some input stream 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 Input
will not appear in the output

1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 Output
 Substitution

• Substitution boxes provide a substitution code, i.e. there

is a code output stored for each input
• Each S box stores a different set of 48 hexadecimal
numbers in a matrix of 164
• There are 8 S-boxes in DES, each accepts a 6-bit input
and returns a 4-bit output
• Consider a 48-bit input stream, first 6 bits input will be
input to the first S box, next 6 bits will be for the second
S box, and so on.
Initial Permutation
 64-bit plaintext

Initial permutation
• 64 bits output of Initial
permutation is split:
K1 Iteration 1 – Left hand 32 bits sent to L
– Right hand 32 bits sent to R
K2 Iteration 2

56-bit key

K16 Iteration 16

32-bit Swap

Inverse permutation

64-bit ciphertext
 Initial Permutation (IP)
• IP is determined as the following table
• It occurs before round one
• Bits in the plaintext are moved to next location, e.g. bit 58 to bit 1, bit
50 to bit 2 and bit 42 to bit 3, etc

58 50 42 34 26 18 10 2
60 52 44 36 28 20 12 4
62 54 46 38 30 22 14 6
64 56 48 40 32 24 16 8
57 49 41 33 25 17 9 1
59 51 43 35 27 19 11 3
61 53 45 37 29 21 13 5
63 55 47 39 31 23 15 7
 Initial Permutation (IP)
• Since M = 3570 E2F1 BA46 82C7HEX = (0011 0101
0111 0000 1110 0010 1111 0001 1011 1010 0100 0110
1000 0010 1100 0111), then IP(M) = [L0 R0] where
• L0 = 1010 1110 0001 1011 1010 0001 1000 1001 =
AE1BA189HEX
• R0 = 1101 1100 0001 1111 0001 0000 1111 0100 =
DC1F10F4HEX
• Now we have L0 and R0 ready for iteration!
Operations in Each Round
 Structure

32 bits 32 bits

Li-1 Ri-1

Li-1 f(Ri-1, Ki)

Li Ri
32 bits 32 bits
 f(Ri-1, Ki)

R (32 bits)

48 bits K (48 bits)

+

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8

32 bits
 Computation of f(Ri-1, Ki)
• Three types of boxes: E, S, P
• R (32 bits) is passed to expansion and permutation box E-
box
• 48 bits output of E-box is added modulo 2 to 48 bits sub-
key and result sent to S boxes
• S boxes (S1, S2…S8) store a set of numbers; input 48
(=68) bits used to look up numbers like a code book and
32 bits output is sent to permutation box P
• Permutation box P permutes 32 bit input producing a 32-
bit output
 E-box used in DES
• The E-box expands 32 bits to 48 bits; it changes
the order of the bits as well as repeating certain
bits.
Bit 32 1 2 3 4 5 4 5 6 7 8 9
Goes to bit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Bit 8 9 10 11 12 13 12 13 14 15 16 17
Goes to bit 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Bit 16 17 18 19 20 21 20 21 22 23 24 25
Goes to bit 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

Bit 24 25 26 27 28 29 28 29 30 31 32 1
Goes to bit 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
 Substitution Boxes S
• Have eight S-boxes which map 6 to 4 bits
• Each S-box is actually 4 little 4 bit boxes
– outer bits 1 & 6 (row bits) select one rows
– inner bits 2-5 (col bits) are substituted
– result is 8 lots of 4 bits, or 32 bits
• Row selection depends on both data & key
– feature known as autoclaving (autokeying)
• Example:
S(1809123d11173839) = 5fd25e03
 Input of S-boxes
• R0 = DC1F10F4HEX and
• K = K0 = 27A169E58DDAHEX ; (here K is not the secret key but a symbol for all sub-keys)
•  E(R0) = 0110 1111 1000 0000 1111 1110 1000 1010 0001 0111 1010 1001 =
6F80FE8A 17A9HEX
•  E(R0)  K0 = 0100 1000 0010 0001 1001 0111 0110 1111 1001 1010 0111 0011 =
4821976F9A73HEX
•  Input Z = 4821976F9A73HEX into S-boxes

R (32 bits)

E
48 bits K (48 bits)
+

Z
 S-box
• After the sub-key is XORed with the expanded right blocked, 48-bit result
moves to the substitution operation, S-boxes
• The S-boxes in DES swap bits around in the 48-bit block in a reversible
manner
• Each S-box are differently defined.
• Each input “b1b2b3b4b5b6”, S box will output a hexadecimal number at
– Row = (b1b6)
– Column = (b2b3b4b5 )

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8

P
32 bits
 S-box used in DES – S1 and S2

• The 48-bit input (from Z ) is separated into eight 6-bit

blocks (B1-8).
• Each block is subjected to a unique substitution function
(S1-8) yielding a 4-bit block as output.
• This is done by taking the first and last bits of the block
to represent a 2-digit binary number (i) in the range of 0
to 3.
• The middle 4 bits of the block represent a 4-digit binary
number (j) in the range of 0 to 15.
• The unique substitution number to use is the one in the ith
row and jth column, which is in the range of 0 to 15 and is
represented by a 4-bit block.
 S-box used in DES – S1 and S2

• Since Z= 4821976F9A73HEX = 010010 000010 000110 010111

011011 111001 101001 110011
  S1(010010) is the value 10 (at row 0 and column 10012= 910 )
  S2(000010) = 110 = 00012 (at row 0 and column 00012= 110 )
S1
Row 0 14 4 13 1 2 15 11 8 3 10 6 12 5 9 0 7
Row 1 0 15 7 4 14 2 13 1 10 6 12 11 9 5 3 8
Row 2 4 1 14 8 13 6 2 11 15 12 9 7 3 10 5 0
Row 3 15 12 8 2 4 9 1 7 5 11 3 14 10 0 6 13
S2
Row 0 15 1 8 14 6 11 3 4 9 7 2 13 12 0 5 10
Row 1 3 13 4 7 15 2 8 14 12 0 1 10 6 9 11 5
Row 2 0 14 7 11 10 4 13 1 5 8 12 6 9 3 2 15
Row 3 13 8 10 1 3 15 4 2 11 6 7 12 0 5 14 9
 S-box used in DES – S3 and S4

• Since Z= 4821976F9A73HEX = 010010 000010 000110 010111

011011 111001 101001 110011
  S3(000110) = 1410 = 11102
  S4(010111) = 1210 = 11002
S3
Row 0 10 0 9 14 6 3 15 5 1 13 12 7 11 4 2 8
Row 1 13 7 0 9 3 4 6 10 2 8 5 14 12 11 15 1
Row 2 13 6 4 9 8 15 3 0 11 1 2 12 5 10 14 7
Row 3 1 10 13 0 6 9 8 7 4 15 14 3 11 5 2 12
S4
Row 0 7 13 14 3 0 6 9 10 1 2 8 5 11 12 4 15
Row 1 13 8 11 5 6 15 0 3 4 7 2 12 1 10 14 9
Row 2 10 6 9 0 12 11 7 13 15 1 3 14 5 2 8 4
Row 3 3 15 0 6 10 1 13 8 9 4 5 11 12 7 2 14
 S-box used in DES – S5 and S6

• Since Z= 4821 976F 9A73HEX = 010010 000010 000110 010111

011011 111001 101001 110011
  S5(011011) = 910 = 10012
  S6(111001) = 610 = 01102
S5
Row 0 2 12 4 1 7 10 11 6 8 5 3 15 13 0 14 9
Row 1 14 11 2 12 4 7 13 1 5 0 15 10 3 9 8 6
Row 2 4 2 1 11 10 13 7 8 15 9 12 5 6 3 0 14
Row 3 11 8 12 7 1 14 2 13 6 15 0 9 10 4 5 3
S6
Row 0 12 1 10 15 9 2 6 8 0 13 3 4 14 7 5 11
Row 1 10 15 4 2 7 12 9 5 6 1 13 14 0 11 3 8
Row 2 9 14 15 5 2 8 12 3 7 0 4 10 1 13 11 6
Row 3 4 3 2 12 9 5 15 10 11 14 1 7 6 0 8 13
 S-box used in DES – S7 and S8

• Since Z= 4821976F9A73HEX = 010010 000010 000110 010111

011011 111001 101001 110011
  S7(101001) = 110 = 00012
  S8(010011) = 910 = 11002
S7
Row 0 4 11 2 14 15 0 8 13 3 12 9 7 5 10 6 1
Row 1 13 0 11 7 4 9 1 10 14 3 5 12 2 15 8 6
Row 2 1 4 11 13 12 3 7 14 10 15 6 8 0 5 9 2
Row 3 6 11 13 8 1 4 0 7 9 5 0 15 14 2 3 12
S8
Row 0 13 2 8 4 6 15 11 1 10 9 3 14 5 0 12 7
Row 1 1 15 13 8 10 3 7 4 12 5 6 11 0 14 9 2
Row 2 7 11 4 1 9 12 14 2 0 6 10 13 15 3 5 8
Row 3 2 1 14 7 4 10 8 13 15 12 9 0 3 5 6 11
 Combine all 8 S-boxes
• Now we have all outputs from 8 S-boxes
• S(Z) = 1010 0001 1110 1100 1001 0110 0001 1100 =
A1EC961CHEX
• Input the result into P-box!
Z

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8

A1EC961CHEX
P
32 bits
 P-box used in DES
• The P-box permutation is determined as below which is a
straight permutation; no bits are used twice, and no bits are
ignored.
•  P(A1EC961CHEX) = 0010 1011 1010 0001 0101 0011 0110
1100 = 2BA1536CHEX

Bit 16 7 20 21 29 12 28 17 1 15 23 26 5 18 31 10
Goes to bit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Bit 2 8 24 14 32 27 3 9 19 13 30 6 22 11 4 25
Goes to bit 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
DES Key Schedule
 Generating subkeys used in each
round
• consists of:
– initial permutation of the key (PC1) which selects
56-bits in two 28-bit halves
– 16 stages consisting of:
• selecting 24-bits from each half
• permuting them by PC2 for use in function f,
• rotating each half separately either 1 or 2 places
depending on the key rotation schedule K
 Sub-Key generations

• Now, let’s first learn how to generate 16 sub-keys

for each round of DES, given a secret key K of 64
bits long (includes 8 parity bits) by the sender
– K= [0101 1000 0001 1111 1011 1100 1001 0100
1101 0011 1010 0100 0101 0010 1110 1010]
– For each byte, the 8th bit is 1 if the number of 1s
in the first 7 bits is even, 0 otherwise.
 One sub-key
64-bit Secret key
• 64 bits of secret key are input to the
key generator, 8 parity bits are
removed; So, DES key has only 56 bits PC1 (6456)
• Objective: use these 56 bits to generate
a different 48 bit sub-key for each
round of DES C (28-bit) D (28-bit)
– PC1 is a P box where 8 parity bits are
removed with input of 64 bits key
– 56-bit output of PC1 is split into two 28-bit
keys which is input into shift registers C PC2 (5648)
and D
– PC2 is also a P box which ignores certain
48-bit sub-key
input bits and permutes to a 48-bit sub-key
Generation of Many Sub-Keys
K

PC1
48-bit sub-keys
C1 D1
PC2 K1
C2 D2
PC2 K2
C3 D3

C16 D16
PC2 K16
 Permuted Choice 1 (PC1)
• The table below specifies how the key is loaded to memory in PC1.
• If 64-bit Secret Key K = [0101 1000 0001 1111 1011 1100 1001 0100
1101 0011 1010 0100 0101 0010 1110 1010], then PC1(K) = [L R]
where both L and R are 28 bits long and
L = [1011110011010001101001000101] and
R = [1101001000101110100001111111]

Bit 57 49 41 33 25 17 9 1 58 50 42 34 26 18
Goes to bit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Bit 10 2 59 51 43 35 27 19 11 3 60 52 44 36
Goes to bit 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

Bit 63 55 47 39 31 23 15 7 62 54 46 38 30 22
Goes to bit 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42

Bit 14 6 61 53 45 37 29 21 13 5 28 20 12 4
Goes to bit 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56
 Shift Registers C and D
• The contents of C = {C1, C2, … C16} and D = {D1, D2, … D16} are
circularly shifted to left by 1 or 2 bits (according to a shift table) prior to
each iteration
• Total of 28 bit shifts will be done after 16 rounds
• Shift tables is determined as below.
• Assume we are at the first round. According to the table, the number of
shift to left =1.
• C1(L) = 0111100110100011010010001011 and
D1(R) = 1010010001011101000011111111
• And C2(C1(L)) 1111001101000110100100010110 and
D2(D1(R)) = 0100100010111010000111111111
Round No. of Shift to left Round No. of Shift to left
1 1 9 1
2 1 10 2
3 2 11 2
4 2 12 2
5 2 13 2
6 2 14 2
7 2 15 2
8 2 16 1
 Permuted Choice 2 (PC2)
• PC2 is determined by the table below
• Consider input X= [C1(L) D1(R)] and Y=[C2(L) D2(R)]
• K1 = PC2(X) = 27 A1 69 E5 8D DA HEX =
(00100111 10100001 01101001 11100101 10001101 11011010)
• K2 = PC2(Y) = DA91 DDD7 B748HEX =
(110110 101001 000111 011101 110101 111011 011101 001000)

Bit 14 17 11 24 1 5 3 28 15 6 21 10
Goes to bit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Bit 23 19 12 4 26 8 16 17 27 20 13 2
Goes to bit 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Bit 41 52 31 37 47 55 30 40 51 45 33 48
Goes to bit 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

Bit 44 49 39 56 34 53 46 42 50 36 29 32
Goes to bit 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
 Use Sub-keys to encrypt
64-bit plaintext

• Now we have K1 and K2; Initial permutation

• Repeat the previous process K1 Iteration 1

14 more times, we will get
K2 Iteration 2
altogether 16 sub-keys
• Assume M is the 64-bit
plaintext K16 Iteration 16

32-bit Swap

M = 3570E2F1BA4682C7HEX Inverse permutation

64-bit ciphertext
An example for first two rounds
 First Round
• L0 = AE1BA189HEX and R0 = DC1F10F4HEX
• Sub-key K1 = 27A169E58DDAHEX
• f(R0,K1) = 2BA1536CHEX
• L0 f(R0,K1)=1000 0101 1011 1010 1111 0010 1110
0101=85BAF2E5HEX
•  L1 = DC1F10F4HEX and R1 = 85BAF2E5HEX

L0 R0

L0 f(R0, K1)

L1 R1
 Second Round
• L1 = DC1F10F4HEX and R1 = 85BAF2E5HEX
• Sub-key K2 = DA91DDD7B748HEX
• E(R1) =110000001011110111110101011110100 101011100001011
= C0BDF57A570BHEX
• E(R1) K2=000110100010110000101000101011011110 000001000011
• S1(000110)=0001; S2(100010)=1110;S3(110000)=1011; S4(101000)=1100;
S5(101011)=1110; S6(011110)=1011; S7(000001)=1101; S8(000011)=1111
• P(8 outputs of S-boxes) = 0101 1111 0011 1110 0011 1001 1111 0111
= 5F3E39F7HEX = f(R1,K2)
• L1 f(R1,K1)
= 1000 0011 0010 0001 0010 1001 0000 0011
L1 R1
= 8321 2903HEX
•  L2= R1 = 85BAF2E5HEX ; R2= 83212903HEX
L1 f(R1, K2)

L2 R2
The last step to get Ciphertext
 DES – Ciphertext
32 bits 32 bits
Li-1 Ri-1 • Express DES encryption
algebraically (in binary
number)
– Rj=Lj-1 f(Rj-1,Kj)
Li-1 f(Ri-1, Ki)
– Lj=Rj-1
• After 16 rounds of iterations,
For i=16 Li Ri the contents of L and R are
32 bits 32 bits swapped and input to Inverse
permutation
32-bit Swap • Finally, a 64-bit ciphertext is
Inverse permutation
done!

64-bit ciphertext
 Inverse Initial Permutation (IP ) -1

• IP-1 is determined as the following table;

• Since DES consists of 16 rounds, too many for our lecture!
• Consider DES algorithm of two rounds.
• Ciphertext = IP-1(R1L1) = 1101 0111 0110 1001 1000 0010 0010 0100
0010 1000 0011 1110 0000 1010 1110 1010 =
D7698224283E0AEAHEX
40 8 48 16 56 24 64 32
39 7 47 15 55 23 63 31
38 6 46 14 54 22 62 30
37 5 45 13 53 21 61 29
36 4 44 12 52 20 60 28
35 3 43 11 51 19 59 27
34 2 42 10 50 18 58 26
33 1 41 9 49 17 57 25
DES – Decryption
• DES decryption is straightforward;
– e.g. to permute n bits with inverse
permutation and then initial permutation x
will do nothing on the n bits
• Decryption processes are almost the Inverse permutation
same except that
Initial permutation
– 16 sub-keys are entered in reverse order
– Decryption sub-keys are formed using a
different shift table with C and D shifts to y=x
the right in stead of the left
 DES Encryption & Decryption
64-bit plaintext 64-bit ciphertext

Initial permutation Initial permutation

K1 Iteration 1 Iteration 1 K16

56-bit key

56-bit key
K2 Iteration 2 Iteration 2 K15

K16 Iteration 16 Iteration 16 K1

32-bit Swap 32-bit Swap

Inverse permutation Inverse permutation

Encryption Decryption

64-bit ciphertext 64-bit plaintext

 Detailed Description
• Decrypt must “undo” steps of data computation
• With Feistel design, do encryption steps again
• Using subkeys in reverse order (SK16 … SK1)
• Note that IP undoes final FP step of encryption
• 1st round with SK16 undoes 16th encrypt round
• ….
• 16th round with SK1 undoes 1st encrypt round
• Then final FP undoes initial encryption IP
• Thus recovering original data value
 Algebraic Expressions
Encryption (M) Decryption (C)
• Input plaintext to Initial • Input ciphertext to Initial
permutation box to get L0 and permutation box to get A16 and
R0 B16
• Repeat 15 times with • Repeat 15 times with
Rj=Lj-1 f(Rj-1,Kj) Bj-1=Aj  f(Bj,Kj)
Lj=Rj-1 Aj-1=Bj
to get L16 and R16 to get A0 and B0
• Swap them to get R16L16 • Swap them to get B0A0
• Put R16L16 to Inverse • Put B0A0 to Inverse permutation
permutation box to get box to get back the plaintext
ciphertext
 A Simple Example

• Consider there are only 2 rounds in DES

• Given ciphertext = C = D7698224283E0AEAHEX
• Let’s decipher it to get back our plaintext M.
• Normally, in deciphering operation, sub-key must be used in
reversed order; i.e. K16, K15,…
• In our case, we will use K2 and then K1 only
• Also, those shift registers C = {C1, C2} and D = {D1,D2} will
be altered to right shift
• IP(C) = 8321290385BAF2E5HEX
• Let A2= 83212903HEX and B2= 85BAF2E5HEX
 Decryption
• A2= 83212903HEX and B2= 85BAF2E5HEX
• First Round
– E(B2)=110000 001011 110111 110101 011110 100101 011100 001011
– E(B2)K2=000110 100010 110000 101000 101011 011110 000001 000011
– S1(000110)=0001; S2(100010)=1110; S3(110000)=1011; S4(101000)=1100;
S5(101011)=1110; S6(011110)=1011; S7(000001)=1101; S8(000011)=1111;
– Let S=0001 1110 1011 1100 1110 1011 1101 1111
– P(S)=0101 1111 0011 1110 0011 1001 1111 0111
– P(S)A2= 1101 1100 0001 1111 0001 0000 1111 0100 = DC1F10F4HEX
 Decryption
• B1= DC1F10F4HEX and A1= B2 = 85BAF2E5HEX
• Second Round
– E(B1)=011011 111000 000011 111110 100010 100001 011110 101001
– E(B1)K1=010010 000010 000110 010111 011011 111001 101001 110011
– S1(010010)=1010; S2(000010)=0001; S3(000110)=1110; S4(010111)=1100;
S5(011011)=1001; S6(111001)=0110; S7(101001)=0001; S8(110011)=1100;
– Let S = 1010 0001 1110 1100 1001 0110 0001 1100
– P(S) = 0010 1011 1010 0001 0101 0011 0110 1100
– P(S)A1= 1010 1110 0001 1011 1010 0001 1000 1001 = AE1BA189HEX
• B0 = AE1B A189HEX and A0 = B1= DC1F 10F4HEX
• IP-1(B0A0) = 0011 0101 0111 0000 1110 0010 1111 0001 1011 1010
0100 0110 1000 0010 1100 0111 = 3570 E2F1 BA46 82C7HEX

=M
 Strength of DES
• 56-bit key (256 = 7.2 x 1016 values) is susceptible to exhaustive key
search due to rapid advances in computing speed
• Have demonstrated breaks
– 1997 on a large network of computers in a few months
– 1998 on dedicated H/W in a few days (www.eff.org/descracker)
• EFF (Electronic Frontier Foundation) DES Cracker
• 1536 chips and search 88 billion keys/second
• $250,000 cost, won the RSA DES Challenge II Contest in less than 3
days (56 hours)
– 1999 above combined in 22 hours !! (DES Cracker + 100,000 computers)
– DES also theoretically broken using Differential or Linear Cryptanalysis

• DES Controversy
– Although the standard is public, the design criteria used are classified