Computer Network

Computer Network means an “interconnected collection of autonomous Computers”. Two

Computers are said to be interconnected if they can exchange information.

 A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication

links.
 A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or
receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.
 A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any medium which can transport a signal
carrying information.

 The term telecommunication means communication at a distance. The word data refers to
information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using
the data. Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some
form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
 Difference between Computer Networks and Distributed System

Computer Networks Distributed System

 The Existence of autonomous computers are  The Existence of autonomous computers are NOT
transparent (they are visible). transparent (they are not visible).

 The autonomous computer performs the operation  The best processor is selected by the operating
requested by the user. system for carrying out the operations requested
by the user.

 The user is aware of his working environment.  The user is not aware of his working environment,
which is multiple processor in nature but looks like
a virtual uniprocessor.

 All operations (allocation of jobs to processors, files  All operations (allocation of jobs to processors,
to disks, movement of files) are done explicitly. files to disks, movement of files) are done
automatically without the user’s knowledge.
 Regulation software is enough for computer networks.
 A software that gives a high degree of cohesiveness
and transparency is needed since distributed
system is built on top of a network
 Computer Networks: Business Applications
 Network for Companies: Many companies have a substantial number of computers, for
examples a company may have separate computers to monitor production, keep track of
inventories, do the payroll. Each of these computers may have worked in isolation from
the others, but at some point, management may have decided to connect them to extract
and correlate information about entire company. Use of Computer Network for business
can be classified as:

 1. Resource Sharing:

 2. Client Server Model

 3. Communication Medium

 4. eCommerce:
 Computer Networks: Resource Sharing:

 The goal is resource sharing, to make all programs, equipment, and especially
data available to anyone on the network without regard to the physical location
of the resource and the user.

 A second goal is to provide high reliability by having alternative sources of

supply. All files could be replicated on two or three machines, so if one of them is
unavailable (due to a hardware failure), the other copies could be used. In
addition, the presence of multiple CPUs means that if one goes down, the others
may be able to take over its work, although at reduced performance.

 Military, banking, air traffic control, nuclear reactor safety, and many other
applications, the ability to continue operating in the face of hardware problems is
of utmost importance
 2. Server-Client model:
 One can imagine a company's information system as consisting of one or more
databases and some employees who need to access it remotely. In this model, the data
is stored on powerful computers called Servers. Often these are centrally housed and
maintained by a system administrator. In contrast, the employees have simple
machines, called Clients, on their desks, using which they access remote data.

 In this model, the users are called clients, and the whole arrangement is called the
client server model. In the client server model, communication generally takes the
form of a request message from the client to the server asking for some work to be
done. The server then does the work and sends back the reply. Usually, there are many
clients using a small number of servers.
 Server-Client model:

 Another goal is saving money. Small computers have a much better price/performance
ratio than large ones. Mainframes (room-size computers) are faster than personal
computers, cost more. This imbalance has lead to the idea of connecting personal
computers, with data kept on one or more shared file server machines.

 Another networking goal is scalability, the ability to increase system performance

gradually as the workload grows just by adding more processors. With the client-server
model, new clients and new servers can be added as needed.
 Computer Networks: Business Applications
3. Communication Medium:
 A computer network can provide a powerful Communication medium among widely
separated employees. Using a network, it is easy for two or more people who live
far apart to write a report together. When one worker makes a change to an on-line
document, the others can see the change immediately, instead of waiting several
days for a letter. Such a speedup makes cooperation among far-flung groups of
people easy where it previously had been impossible.

4. eCommerce:
 A goal that is starting to become more important in businesses is doing business
with consumers over the Internet. Airlines, bookstores and music vendors have
discovered that many customers like the convenience of shopping from home. This
sector is expected to grow quickly in the future.
Computer Networks: Home Applications
Some of the most important uses of the Internet for home users are as
follows:

•Access to remote information

•Person-to-person communication

•Interactive entertainment

•Electronic commerce
 Computer Networks: Home Applications
Access to remote information comes in several forms.

For example,

•Home shopping, paying telephone bills, e-banking, online share market, etc.

•It is possible to access an information system like the World Wide Web, which includes
data about the craft, business, cooking, government, health, history, recreation, science,
sports, etc.

•Newspaper is currently available online. You can access the news according to your
interest.
 Person-to-Person Communication
Person to person communication involves the following −The second broad category of
network use will be person-to-person communication Electronic mail or email is already
widely used by millions of people and will soon contain audio and video as well as text.
Instant messaging allows two people to type messages at each other in real time.

A multiperson version of this idea is the chat room, in which a group of people can type
messages for all to see.
Electronic-mail (e-mail) Sending and receiving email over an typical network is shown in
the figure −
 Person-to-Person Communication

Real-time email will allow remote users to communicate with no delay, possibly seeing and
hearing each other as well. This technology makes it possible to have virtual meetings, called
videoconference, among farflung people. Virtual meetings could be used for remote school,
getting medical opinions from distant specialists, and numerous other applications.

Worldwide newsgroups, with discussions on every conceivable topic are common among a
select group of people, and this will grow to include the population at large. Here one person
posts a message and all the other subscribers to the newsgroup can read it and can respond
with an answer.
 Interactive Entertainment

Our third category is entertainment, which is a huge and growing industry.

Video on Demand :The killer application here is video on demand. Live television may also
become interactive, with the audience participating in quiz shows, choosing among
contestants, and so on.

Game Playing : Game playing is an important application of computer network for people.
Multiperson real-time simulation games, like hide-and-seek in a virtual dungeon, and flight
simulators with the players on one team trying to shoot down the players on the opposing
team, 3-dimensional real-time, photographic-quality moving images, virtual reality games
are few to mentio
 Computer Networks: Mobile Users:
Mobile Users Mobile computers, such as notebook computers and personal digital
assistants (PDAs), are one of the fastest-growing segments of the computer industry. A
common reason is the portable office.

People on the road want to use their portable electronic equipment to send and receive
telephone calls, faxes and electronic mail, surf the web, access remote files, and log on
remote machines and they want to do this from anywhere on land, sea or air.

 Wireless networks are of great value of fleets of trucks, taxis, delivery vehicles and repair
persons for keeping in contact with home.

Wireless network are also important to the military.

Distinction between Fixed wireless and
mobile wireless
 Computer Networks: Social issues
The widespread introduction of networking has led to
1. Social
2. Ethical and
3. Political problems.

The trouble arises when newsgroups are set up on topics that people contradicting views.
Views posted to such groups may be deeply offensive to some people. Thus the debate
rages. Users rights are violated and freeness of speech is barred.

Computer networks offer the potential for sending anonymous messages, a way to express
views without fear of reprisals. This newfound freedom brings with it many unsolved
social, political, and moral issues.
 NETWORK HARDWARE:-
There is no generally accepted taxonomy into which all computer networks fit, but two
dimensions Stand out as important.
1.Transmission Technology
2. Scale Transmission

Technology: Broadly speaking, there are two types of transmission technology:

A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications
pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some way to the same link
at the same
time.
1. Broadcast networks.: multiple recipients of single transmission
2. Point-to-point Networks : single transmitter and receiver
Types of connections: point-to-point and
multipoint
 Types of connections: point-to-point and
multipoint
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire
capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.

When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you are establishing a
point-to-point connection
between the remote control and the television's control system.
Multipoint :
A multipoint (also called multidrop)connection is one in which more than two specific
devices share a single link.

In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or

temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared
connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.
 Broadcast networks.
Broadcast networks have a single communication channel that is shared by all the machines on the
network.

 Short messages, called packets in certain contexts sent by any machine are received by all the
others.

 An address field within the packet specifies for whom it is intended. Upon receiving a packet, a
machine checks the address field. If the packet is intended for itself, it processes the packet; if the
packet is intended for some other machine, it is just ignored.

 Although the packet may actually be received by many systems, only the intended one responds.
The others just ignore it.

 Broadcast systems also allow the possibility of addressing a packet to all destinations by using a
special code in the address field. When a packet with this code is transmitted, it is received and
processed by every machine on the network. This mode of operation is called broadcasting.
 Point-to-point Networks
Multicasting: Some broadcast systems also support transmission to a subset of the machines, something known as
multicasting. One possible scheme is to reserve one bit to indicate multicasting.

The remaining n - 1 address bits can hold a group number. Each machine can "subscribe" to any or all of the groups. When a
packet is sent to a certain group, it is delivered to all machines subscribing to that group.

In contrast, point-to-point networks consist of many connections between individual pairs of machines.

 To go from the source to the destination, a packet on this type of network may have to first visit one or more
intermediate machines.

 Often multiple routes, of different lengths are possible, so routing algorithms play an important role in point-to-point
networks.

 As a general rule smaller, geographically localized networks tend to use broadcasting, whereas larger networks usually
are point-to-point. Point-to-Point transmission with one sender and one receiver is called Unicasting.
 Network Topology

The network topology defines the way

in which computers, printers, and
other devices are connected. A
network topology describes the layout
of the wire and devices as well as the
paths used by data transmissions.
Categories of topology Network Topology

A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)

Star Topology :

In a star topology, each device is connected to a central controller, usually called a hub.
The hub takes a signal that comes from any node and passes it along to all the other nodes on the network.
A star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices.
The star topology reduces the chance of network failure by connecting all of the systems to a central node.

A star topology connecting four

stations:
 Star Topology :

Advantages of Star Topology : Disadvantages of Star Topology :

Whole topology is dependant on hub if hub goes down the
Less expensive whole system is dead.
Easy to locate problems
It has multiple links so if one route is locked than other
Robust routes can be used for data communication
Easier installation More expensive because of the cost of the hubs
Easy to detect failures and to remove parts Requires more cabling
 Bus Topology :

Bus Topology :

One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network (see fig 1.7).
Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
A drop line is a connection running between the device and the main cable.
A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a
contact with the metallic core.
 Bus Topology :

Advantages of Bus Topology : Disadvantages of Bus Topology :

Its easy to use and understand
Difficult reconnection and fault isolation A bus is usually
less cabling than mesh or star topologies designed to be optimally efficient at installation. It can
therefore be difficult to add new devices
Inexpensive
fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even
redundancy is eliminated
between devices on the same side of the problem.
Ring Topology :

A ring topology connecting six stations

 Ring Topology :
Ring Topology :
In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices on either side of
it.
A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination.

Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its
repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along

Advantages of Ring Topology : Disadvantages of Ring Topology :

Very orderly network as every device has access to
the token and the opportunity to transmit A break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the
entire network.
Easier to manage
The movement of changes made to network nodes effect the
Good communication over long distances performance of the entire network.

Handles high volume of traffic

 A fully connected mesh topology (five
devices)
Mesh Topology :

Mesh Topology :
 In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device.
The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects
We need n(n - 1)/2 physical links to connect n nodes
To accommodate tat may links every device on the network must have n-1 i/o ports

Q. How many physical links are needed to connect 5 nodes in a mesh network?

Ans- No. of nodes=5

No. of links= n(n - 1)/2
=(5*4)2
=10
 Mesh Topology

Advantages of Mesh Topology : Disadvantages of Mesh Topology :

No traffic problems There is a mesh of wiring which can be difficult to manage
Installation is complex as each node is connected to every
It has multiple links so if one route is locked node
than other routes can be used for data Cabling cost is high
communication
Fault isolation easy

Fault identification easy

Fault isolation easy
More secure
A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three
bus networks
 Categories of Networks

Local Area Networks (LANs)

Short distances
Designed to provide local interconnectivity
Wide Area Networks (WANs)
Long distances
Provide connectivity over large areas
Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus
 Personal Area Networks (PAN)

Personal Area Networks (PAN)

A PAN is a network that is used for communicating among computers and computer devices
(including telephones) in close proximity of around a few meters within a room
It can be used for communicating between the devices themselves, or for connecting to a larger
network such as the internet.
PAN’s can be wired or wireless
A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network for
interconnecting electronic devices within an individual person's
workspace.[1] A PAN provides data transmission among devices
such as computers, smartphones, tablets and personal digital
assistants.
PANs can be used for communication among the personal
devices themselves, or for connecting to a higher level network
and the Internet where one master device takes up the role
as gateway.
 Local Area Networks (LANs)

Local Area Networks (LANs)

 A LAN is a network that is used for communicating among computer devices, usually within an office
building or home.
 LAN’s enable the sharing of resources such as files or hardware devices that may be needed by multiple
users
 Is limited in size, typically spanning a few hundred meters, and no more than a mile
 Is fast, with speeds from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps
 Requires little wiring, typically a single cable connecting to each device
 Has lower cost compared to MAN’s or WAN’s
 LAN’s can be either wired or wireless. Twisted pair, coax or fiber optic cable can be used in wired LAN’s.
 Every LAN uses a protocol – a set of rules that governs data transmission
An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to
a hub in a closet
Advantages of Local Area Networks (LANs)

Advantages of Local Area Networks (LANs) Disadvantages of Local Area Networks (LANs)
Speed Expensive to install
cost Cables may break
Security File server may fail
Resource sharing
 Metropolitan Area Network(WANs)
Metropolitan Area Network(WANs)

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans a city or a large campus.
A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of buildings to entire cities.
A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually will be used by many individuals and
organizations.
A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional resources.
A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter.
Examples of MAN: Telephone company network that provides a high speed DSL to customers and cable TV network.
 Wide Area Networks (WANs)

Wide Area Networks (WANs)

WAN covers a large geographic area such as country, continent or even whole of the world.
A WAN is two or more LANs connected together. The LANs can be many miles apart.
To cover great distances, WANs may transmit data over leased high-speed phone lines or wireless links
such as satellites.

Multiple LANs can be connected together using devices such as bridges, routers, or gateways, which
enable them to share data.
The world's most popular WAN is the internet.

Multiple LANs can be connected together using devices such as bridges, routers, or gateways, which
enable them to share data.
The world's most popular WAN is the internet.
WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point
WAN
A heterogeneous network made of four WANs
and two LANs
 Data Flow: simplex, full-duplex, half-duplex

Data Flow: communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex,

or full-duplex
simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-
way street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can
only receive).

Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The

keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output. The
simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one
direction.
 Data Flow: simplex, full-duplex, half-duplex

half-duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and

receive, but not at the same time. : When one device is sending, the other can
only receive, and vice versa The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road
with traffic allowed in both directions.
In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over
by whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time.

Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems.

Data Flow: simplex, full-duplex, half-duplex
full-duplex: In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both
stations can transmit and receive simultaneously

One common example of full-duplex comm. is the telephone

network. When two people are communicating by a
telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time. The
full-duplex mode is used when communication in both
directions is required all the time. The capacity of the
channel, however, must be divided between the two
directions.
Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-
duplex)
 Network Criteria

Performance
Depends on Network Elements
Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput
Reliability
Failure rate of network components
Measured in terms of availability/robustness
Security
Data protection against corruption/loss of data
due to:
Errors
Malicious users
 Network Criteria
Performance:
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time.

Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another.

Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response

The performance of a network depends on a no. of factors, including the number of users, the type of
transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.

Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay.

We often need more throughput and less delay.

Network Criteria

Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability

is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to
recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a
catastrophe.

Security: Network security issues include protecting data from

unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and development,
and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from
breaches and data losses.