Chapter 8 NS II

Because learning changes everything.
Chapter 8
Nervous System Part 2
Lecture Outline
Seeley’s ESSENTIALS OF
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
Eleventh Edition
Cinnamon VanPutte
Jennifer Regan
Andrew Russo
Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.
The Nervous System
• The nervous system can be divided into the central

nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
• The central nervous system (CNS), consists of the brain

and spinal cord.
• The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of all the

nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord.
Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 2
Spinal Cord
• Extends from the

foramen magnum to the
2nd lumbar vertebra
• Protected by vertebral
column
• Spinal nerves allow

movement
• If damaged paralysis
can occur
Figure 8.14
Access the text alternative for slide images.
Gray Matter and White Matter
Gray Matter:
• center of spinal cord
• looks like letter H or a butterfly
White Matter:
• Outer layer of spinal cord
• contains myelinated fibers
White Matter in Spinal Cord
Located in the white matter of the CNS are three columns:

dorsal, ventral, and lateral.
Columns contain ascending and descending tracts.
Ascending tracts:
• axons that conduct action potentials toward the brain
Descending tracts:
• axons that conduct action potentials away from the brain
Gray Matter in Spinal Cord
The gray matter has a letter H shape with horns.

Posterior horns:
• contain axons which synapse with interneurons
Anterior horns:
• contain somatic neurons
Lateral horns:
• contain autonomic neurons
Central canal:
• fluid filled space in center of cord
Spinal Cord Cross Section
Figure 8.15
Reflexes
• A reflex is an involuntary reaction in response to a

stimulus applied to the periphery and transmitted to the
CNS.
• Reflexes allow a person to react to stimuli more quickly

than is possible if conscious thought is involved.
• Most reflexes occur in the spinal cord or brainstem rather

than in the higher brain centers.
• A reflex arc is the neuronal pathway by which a reflex

occurs and has five basic components.
Reflex Arc Components
1. A sensory receptor
2. A sensory neuron
3. Interneurons, which are neurons located between and

communicating with two other neurons
4. A motor neuron
5. An effector organ (muscles or glands).
Note: The simplest reflex arcs do not involve interneurons.
Reflex Arc
Figure 8.16
Reflexes 1
• The simplest reflex is the stretch reflex.
• A stretch reflex occurs when muscles contract in

response to a stretching force applied to them.
• The knee-jerk reflex, or patellar reflex is a classic

example of a stretch reflex.
Reflexes 2
• The withdrawal reflex, or flexor reflex, is to remove a limb

or another body part from a painful stimulus.
• The sensory receptors are pain receptors, and stimulation

of these receptors initiates the reflex.
Withdrawal Reflex
Figure 8.17
Spinal Nerves
• Arise along spinal cord from union of dorsal roots and

ventral roots.
• Contain axons of sensory and somatic motor neurons.
• Located between vertebra.
• Categorized by region of vertebral column from which it

emerges (C for cervical).
• 31 pairs organized in 3 plexuses.
Cervical Plexus
• Spinal nerves C1-4
• Innervates muscles attached to hyoid bone and skin of

neck and back of head.
• Contains the phrenic nerve which innervates diaphragm.
Brachial Plexus
• Originates from spinal nerves C5-T1.
• Supply nerves to the upper limbs, shoulders, hand.
Lumbosacral Plexus
• Originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4.
• Supplies nerves lower limbs.
Plexuses
Figure 8.19a
Dermatome 1
• The nerves arising from each region of the spinal cord and
vertebral column supply specific regions of the body.
• A dermatome is the area of skin supplied with sensory

innervation by a pair of spinal nerves.
• Each of the spinal nerves except C1 has a specific

cutaneous sensory distribution.
Dermatome 2
Figure 8.19b
The Brain
The four major regions of the brain are:
• the brainstem
• the cerebellum
• the diencephalon
• the cerebrum
Brainstem
Dennis Strete/McGraw-Hill Education
Components:
• Medulla oblongata
• Pons
• Midbrain Figure 8.20
Brainstem Components 1
Medulla oblongata
• Location:
• continuous with spinal cord
• Function:
• regulates heart rate, blood vessel diameter, breathing, swallowing,
vomiting, hiccupping, coughing, sneezing, balance
• Other:
• pyramids: involved in conscious control of skeletal muscle
Pons
• Location:
• above medulla, bridge between cerebrum and cerebellum
• Function:
• breathing, chewing, salivation, swallowing, relay station between
cerebrum and cerebellum
Midbrain
• Location:
• above pons
• Function:
• coordinated eye movement, pupil diameter, turning head toward
noise
• Other:
• the dorsal part has the four colliculi which are involved in visual and
auditory reflexes
Reticular Formation
• Location:
• scattered throughout brainstem
• Function:
• regulates cyclical motor function, respiration, walking, chewing,
arousing and maintaining consciousness, regulates sleep-wake
cycle
Cerebellum
Location:
• attached to the brainstem by the cerebellar peduncles
Characteristics:
• means “little brain”
• cortex is composed of gyri, sulci, gray matter
Functions:
• controls balance
• muscle tone
• coordination of fine motor function
Diencephalon 1
Dennis Strete/McGraw-Hill Education
Located between the brainstem and cerebrum

Components:
• Thalamus
• Hypothalamus
• Epithalamus Figure 8.20
Diencephalon Components 1
Thalamus
• Characteristics:
• largest portion of diencephalon
• Function:
• regulates sensory input traveling from the spinal cord and
brainstem to the cerebral cortex
• influences moods and detects pain
Epithalamus:
• Location:
• above thalamus
• Function:
• emotional and visceral response to odors
• contains the pineal gland which is an endocrine gland that plays a

role in controlling some long-term cycles that are influenced by the
light-dark cycle
Hypothalamus
• Location:
• below thalamus
• Characteristics:
• controls pituitary gland and is connected to it by infundibulum
• Function:
• controls homeostasis, body temp, thirst, hunger, fear, rage, sexual
emotions
Diencephalon 2
Figure 8.22
Cerebrum Characteristics
Largest portion of brain

Divisions:
• Right hemisphere
• Left hemisphere
separated by
longitudinal fissure
Lobes: frontal, parietal,
occipital, temporal,
insula (fifth lobe)
Rebecca Gray/McGraw-Hill Education

Figure 8.23b
Cerebrum Components
Cerebral Cortex
• Location:
• surface of cerebrum, composed of gray matter
• Function:
• controls thinking, communicating
• remembering, understanding, and initiates voluntary movements
Cerebrum Surface Features
Longitudinal fissure:
• divides cerebrum into left and right hemispheres
Gyri:
• folds on cerebral cortex that increase surface area
Sulci:
• shallow indentations
Fissure:
• deep indentations
Cerebral Hemispheres
Left hemisphere:
• controls right side of body
• responsible for math, analytic, and speech
Right hemisphere:
• controls left side of body
• responsible for music, art, abstract ideas
Corpus callosum:
• connection between the two hemispheres
Lobes of the Brain 1
Frontal lobe
• Location: anterior
• Function: controls voluntary motor functions, aggression,

moods, smell
Parietal lobe
• Location: top
• Function: evaluates sensory input such as touch, pain,

pressure, temperature, taste
Lobes of the Brain 2
Occipital lobe
• Location: posterior
• Function: vision
Temporal lobe
• Location: lateral
• Function: hearing, smell, memory
Cerebrum 1
©R. T. Hutchings
Figure 8.23a
Cerebrum 2
Rebecca Gray/McGraw-Hill Education Figure 8.23b

Sensory Functions
• CNS constantly receives sensory input
• We are unaware of most sensory input
• Sensory input is vital of our survival and normal functions
Ascending Tracts 1
• Ascending pathways are sensory tracts carrying impulses

up the spinal cord to specific areas of the brain.
• Each tract is involved with a limited type of sensory input,

such as pain, temperature, touch, position, or pressure.
• Tracts are usually given composite names that indicate

their origin and termination.
Ascending Tracts 2
• The names of ascending tracts usually begin with the

prefix spino-, indicating that they begin in the spinal cord,
such as the spinothalamic.
• Sensory tracts typically cross from one side of the body in

the spinal cord or brainstem to the other side of the body.
• The left side of the brain receives sensory input from the
right side of the body, and vice versa.
Ascending Spinal Cord Tracts
Figure 8.24
Dorsal Column
Figure 8.25
Sensory Areas of Cerebral Cortex
Primary sensory areas:
• where ascending tracts project
• where sensations are perceived
Primary somatosensory cortex:
• general sensory area
• in parietal lobe
• sensory input such as pain, pressure, temp.
Somatic Motor Functions 1
Somatic motor neurons innervate skeletal muscles.
The somatic motor system is responsible for:
• maintaining the body’s posture and balance
• moving the trunk, head, limbs, tongue, and eyes
• communicating through facial expressions and speech
• Reflexes mediated through the spinal cord and brainstem

are responsible for some body movements that are
involuntary.
• Voluntary movements are consciously activated to achieve

a specific goal, such as walking or typing.
• Voluntary movements result from the stimulation of neural

circuits that consist of two motor neurons: upper and lower
motor neurons.
• Upper motor neurons have cell bodies in the cerebral

cortex and project down the spinal cord to synapse with
lower motor neurons.
• Lower motor neurons have cell bodies in the anterior

horn of the spinal cord gray matter or in cranial nerve
nuclei.
• The axons of lower motor neurons leave the central

nervous system and extend through spinal or cranial
nerves to skeletal muscles.
Motor Areas of Cerebral Cortex
Primary motor cortex:

• frontal lobe
• control voluntary motor movement
Premotor area:
• frontal lobe
• where motor functions are organized before initiation
Prefrontal area:
• motivation and foresight to plan and initiate movement
Sensory and Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
Figure 8.26
Descending Tracts 1
• Descending tracts are motor tracts carrying impulses down

the spinal cord, either terminating there or in the
brainstem.
• The corticospinal tracts are considered direct because

they extend directly from upper motor neurons in the
cerebral cortex to lower motor neurons in the spinal cord.
• Some tracts are considered indirect because they

originate in the brainstem but are indirectly controlled by
the cerebral cortex, basal nuclei, and cerebellum.
Descending Tracts 2
• Tracts in the lateral columns are most important in

controlling goal-directed limb movements, such as
reaching and manipulating.
• Tracts in the ventral columns, such as the reticulospinal

tract, are most important for maintaining posture, balance,
and limb position through their control of neck, trunk, and
proximal limb muscles.
Descending Tracts 3
• Crossover of axons in the brainstem or spinal cord to the

opposite side of the body is typical of descending
pathways.
• The left side of the brain controls skeletal muscles on the

right side of the body, and vice versa.
Descending Tracts
Figure 8.27
Direct Motor Tract
Figure 8.28
Basal Nuclei 1
Group of functionally related nuclei
Plan, organize, coordinate motor movements and posture
Corpus striatum:
• deep in cerebrum
Substantia nigra:
• in midbrain
Basal Nuclei 2
Figure 8.29
Speech
Mainly in left hemisphere
Sensory speech (Wernicke’s area):
• parietal lobe
• where words are heard and comprehended
Motor speech (Broca’s area):
• frontal lobe
• where words are formulated
Brain Waves and Consciousness
• Used to diagnose and determine treatment for brain

disorders
• Electroencephalogram (EEG):
• Electrodes are placed on scalp to record brain’s electrical

activity.
Brain Waves
Alpha waves:
• person is awake in quiet state
Beta waves:
• intense mental activity
Delta waves:
• deep sleep
Theta waves:
• in children
Electroencephalogram
(a) PHANIE/Science Source
Figure 8.31
Memory 1
• Working memory occurs when the brain briefly stores

information required for an immediate performance of a
task. It lasts only a few seconds to minutes.
• Short-term memory lasts longer than working memory

and can be retained for a few minutes to a few days.
Memory 2
• Short-term memory is transferred to long-term memory,

where it may be stored for only a few minutes or become
permanent, by consolidation.
• Consolidation is a gradual process involving the formation

of new and stronger synaptic connections.
• The length of time memory is stored may depend on how

often it is retrieved and used.
Memory 3
• Declarative memory, or explicit memory, involves the

retention of facts, such as names, dates, and places, as
well as related emotional undertones.
• Procedural memory, or reflexive memory, involves the

development of motor skills, such as riding a bicycle.
Limbic System and Emotions 1
• The olfactory cortex and certain deep cortical regions and

nuclei of the cerebrum and the diencephalon are grouped
together under the title limbic system.
• The limbic system influences long-term declarative

memory, emotions, visceral responses to emotions,
motivation, and mood.
• A major source of sensory input to the limbic system are

the olfactory nerves.
• The limbic system is connected to, and functionally

associated with, the hypothalamus.
• Lesions in the limbic system can result in voracious

appetite, increased (often perverse) sexual activity, and
docility (including loss of normal fear and anger
responses).
Figure 8.32
Meninges 1
• The meninges are three connective tissue layers that

surround the brain and spinal cord.
• The outermost (most superficial) meningeal layer is the

dura mater, which is the toughest of all the meninges.
• The dura mater forms two layers around the brain and only
one layer around the spinal cord.
• The second meningeal membrane is the very thin, wispy

arachnoid mater.
Meninges 2
• The space between the dura mater and the arachnoid

mater is the subdural space, which is normally only a
potential space containing a very small amount of serous
fluid.
• The third meningeal membrane, the pia mater, is very

tightly bound to the surface of the brain and spinal cord.
Meninges 3
• Between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater is the

subarachnoid space, which is filled with cerebrospinal
fluid and contains blood vessels.
Meninges
Figure 8.33
Ventricles 1
• The CNS contains fluid-filled cavities, called ventricles.
• Each cerebral hemisphere contains a relatively large

cavity called the lateral ventricle.
• The third ventricle is a smaller, midline cavity located in

the center of the diencephalon between the two halves of
the thalamus and connected by foramina (holes) to the
lateral ventricles.
Ventricles 2
• The fourth ventricle is located at the base of the

cerebellum and connected to the third ventricle by a
narrow canal, called the cerebral aqueduct.
• The fourth ventricle is continuous with the central canal of

the spinal cord.
• The fourth ventricle also opens into the subarachnoid

space through foramina in its walls and roof.
Brain Ventricles
Figure 8.34
Cerebrospinal Fluid 1
• Cerebrospinal Fluid Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) bathes the

brain and spinal cord, providing a protective cushion
around the CNS.
• The ependymal cells located in the choroid plexuses of

the ventricles produce the CSF.
• CSF fills the brain ventricles, the central canal of the spinal
cord, and the subarachnoid space.
• The CSF flows from the lateral ventricles into the third
ventricle and then through the cerebral aqueduct into the
fourth ventricle.
• A small amount of CSF enters the central canal of the

spinal cord.
• The CSF exits the fourth ventricle through small openings

in its walls and roof and enters the subarachnoid space.
• Masses of arachnoid tissue, called arachnoid

granulations, penetrate the superior sagittal sinus, a dural
venous sinus in the longitudinal fissure, and CSF passes
from the subarachnoid space into the blood through these
granulations.
Flow of Cerebrospinal Fluid
Figure 8.35
Cranial Nerves 1
• 12 pair of cranial nerves
• Named by roman numerals
• 2 categories of functions: sensory and motor
Cranial Nerves 2
• Cranial Nerve I (Olfactory) is a pure sensory nerve for

smell
• Cranial Nerve II (Optic) is a pure sensory nerve for vision
• Cranial Nerve III (Occulomotor) is a pure motor nerve for

eye movement
• Cranial Nerve IV (Trochlear) is a pure motor nerve for eye

movement
Cranial Nerves 3
• Cranial Nerve V (Trigeminal) is both a motor and sensory

nerve. It is sensory for pain, touch, and temperature for
the eye and lower and upper jaws. It is motor for muscles
of chewing.
• Cranial Nerve VI (Abducens) is a pure motor nerve for eye

movement
• Cranial Nerve VII (Facial) is both a sensory and motor

nerve. It is sensory for taste and motor for facial
expression.
Cranial Nerves 4
• Cranial Nerve VIII (Vestibulocochlear) is a pure sensory

nerve for hearing and equilibrium
• Cranial Nerve IX (Glossopharyngeal) is both a motor and

sensory nerve. It is sensory for taste and motor for
swallowing.
• Cranial Nerve X (Vagus) is both a motor and sensory

nerve. It is sensory and motor for organs in the thoracic
and abdominal cavities.
Cranial Nerves 5
• Cranial Nerve XI (Accessory) is a pure motor nerve for the

trapezius, sternocleidomastoid, and muscles of the larynx.
• Cranial Nerve XII (Hypoglossal) is a pure motor nerve for

the tongue
Cranial Nerves 6
Figure 8.36
Autonomic Nervous System 1
• The autonomic neurons innervate smooth muscle, cardiac

muscle, and glands.
• Autonomic functions are largely controlled unconsciously.
• The autonomic nervous system is composed of the

sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division.
• Increased activity in sympathetic neurons generally

prepares the individual for physical activity, whereas
parasympathetic stimulation generally activates
involuntary functions, such as digestion, that are normally
associated with the body at rest.
• In the autonomic nervous system, two neurons in series

extend from the CNS to the effector organs.
• The first neuron is called the preganglionic neuron; the

second neuron is the postganglionic neuron.
• The neurons are so named because preganglionic

neurons synapse with postganglionic neurons in
autonomic ganglia within the PNS.
Sympathetic Division
The cell bodies of sympathetic preganglionic neurons are in

the lateral horns of the spinal cord gray matter between the
first thoracic (T1) and the second lumbar (L2) segments.
The axons of the preganglionic neurons exit through ventral

roots and project to either sympathetic chain ganglia or
collateral ganglia.
Parasympathetic Division 1
• Some preganglionic cell bodies of the parasympathetic

division are located within the lateral part of the central
gray matter of the spinal cord in the regions that give rise
to spinal nerves S2 through S4.
• Other preganglionic cell bodies of the parasympathetic

division are located within brainstem nuclei of the
occulomotor, facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves.
Parasympathetic Division 2
• Axons of the preganglionic neurons extend through spinal

nerves or cranial nerves to terminal ganglia either located
near effector organs in the head or embedded in the walls
of effector organs in the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis.
• Most of the thoracic and abdominal organs are supplied by

preganglionic neurons of the vagus nerve extending from
the brainstem.
Somatic and Autonomic Nervous System
Figure 8.37
Innervation of Organs by the ANS
Figure 8.38
Enteric Nervous System 1
The enteric nervous system (ENS) consists of plexuses

within the wall of the digestive tract.
The plexuses include:
• Sensory neurons that connect the digestive tract to the

CNS.
• Sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons that connect

the CNS to the digestive tract.
• Enteric neurons, located entirely within the enteric

plexuses.
Enteric Nervous System 2
• Enteric neurons are capable of monitoring and controlling

the digestive tract independently of the CNS through local
reflexes.
• For example, stretching of the digestive tract is detected

by enteric sensory neurons, which stimulate enteric
interneurons. The enteric interneurons stimulate enteric
motor neurons, which stimulate glands to secrete.

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Because learning changes everything.

• The nervous system can be divided into the central

• The central nervous system (CNS), consists of the brain

• The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of all the

• Extends from the

• Spinal nerves allow

• center of spinal cord

• looks like letter H or a butterfly

• Outer layer of spinal cord

• contains myelinated fibers

Located in the white matter of the CNS are three columns:

Columns contain ascending and descending tracts.

• axons that conduct action potentials toward the brain

• axons that conduct action potentials away from the brain

The gray matter has a letter H shape with horns.

• A reflex is an involuntary reaction in response to a

• Reflexes allow a person to react to stimuli more quickly

• Most reflexes occur in the spinal cord or brainstem rather

• A reflex arc is the neuronal pathway by which a reflex

3. Interneurons, which are neurons located between and

5. An effector organ (muscles or glands).

Note: The simplest reflex arcs do not involve interneurons.

• The simplest reflex is the stretch reflex.

• A stretch reflex occurs when muscles contract in

• The knee-jerk reflex, or patellar reflex is a classic

• The withdrawal reflex, or flexor reflex, is to remove a limb

• The sensory receptors are pain receptors, and stimulation

• Arise along spinal cord from union of dorsal roots and

• Contain axons of sensory and somatic motor neurons.

• Located between vertebra.

• Categorized by region of vertebral column from which it

• 31 pairs organized in 3 plexuses.

• Spinal nerves C1-4

• Innervates muscles attached to hyoid bone and skin of

• Contains the phrenic nerve which innervates diaphragm.

• Originates from spinal nerves C5-T1.

• Supply nerves to the upper limbs, shoulders, hand.

• Originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4.

• Supplies nerves lower limbs.

• A dermatome is the area of skin supplied with sensory

• Each of the spinal nerves except C1 has a specific

The four major regions of the brain are:

Dennis Strete/McGraw-Hill Education

Dennis Strete/McGraw-Hill Education

Located between the brainstem and cerebrum

• influences moods and detects pain

• contains the pineal gland which is an endocrine gland that plays a

Largest portion of brain

Rebecca Gray/McGraw-Hill Education

• remembering, understanding, and initiates voluntary movements

• responsible for math, analytic, and speech

• responsible for music, art, abstract ideas

• Function: controls voluntary motor functions, aggression,

• Function: evaluates sensory input such as touch, pain,

• Function: hearing, smell, memory

Rebecca Gray/McGraw-Hill Education Figure 8.23b

• CNS constantly receives sensory input

• We are unaware of most sensory input

• Sensory input is vital of our survival and normal functions

• Ascending pathways are sensory tracts carrying impulses