CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION TO
PSYCHOLOGY AS A
SCIENCE
#Definitions

 Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior.

 It is the science of mental life, both of its phenomena and their conditions.
 Study of behavior and experiences
 Science of activities of individual
 Science of human nature

 Modern psychology defines psychology as the science of behavior and mental or cognitive
processes.
Psychology as an empirical science
 Psychology is a science because it proposes explanatory theories that can be shown to be
wrong. (Note: this is not to say that we go out of way to say things that are wrong, just that
we always make sure that it’s possible to show that what we said is wrong. A good way to
check whether a theory is scientific is to make sure that you can dream up some
hypothetical [i.e., imaginary] data that would disprove the theory.) Psychology is an
empirical science in particular because the way we test whether a theory is wrong is by
comparing its predictions to actual data. Empirical science is not an arm-chair science; you
have to get up and go collect some data.
 The falsification approach to testing theories works like this: the theory predicts a certain
pattern of data; if you don’t get that pattern of data, then the theory is (in some way)
wrong. Note how this approach allows you to rule out a theory – i.e., show that it is wrong
– but it never allows you to prove that a theory is correct. At best, from the point of view of
the theory, is that it “survives” the test. Every time a theory survives a test (by making the
correct prediction), your confidence in the theory may increase, but it should never reach
complete confidence. Some new data down the road could prove the theory to be wrong.
 Psychologists make phenomenological assertions, which are (just) factual claims, as in what
happen when; psychologists also make theoretical assertions, which are claims about why. Note
that the first type of claim should always be non-controversial; anyone who wants to should be
able to verify (or disprove) the claim by collecting their own data. In other words, we must
always agree on the facts; if there is any doubt about the facts, everything else should stop until
these doubts are dealt with. In contrast, everyone should feel free to disagree with a theoretical
claim, although they ought to base their disagreement on other data or, ideally, have an
alternative explanation ready.
 Objectivity (which contrasts with subjectivity) means that the data do not depend on who is
collecting them; the data are out in the open and can be verified by others; they are not private
and hidden, being only accessible by one person. Replicability means that anyone else can re-run
the entire experiment or study and – presumably – get the same results. These two things are
important because these are the main prerequisites for our having agreement on the facts. As
mentioned before, we must agree on the facts. We can argue about their meaning or implications
– in terms of which theories are supported or ruled out – but we must agree on the facts.
Nature and goals of psychology

 Psychology is an empirical science

 Psychology studies behavior
 Psychology studies mental processes
 Psychology tries to establish universal as well as contextual laws
 Psychology is both basic and applied in nature
 Psychology can predict behavior
 Psychology is concerned with modifying behaviors
GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY

 Describe behavior
 Understand or explain behavior
 Predict the behavior
 Control or modify behaviors

 The ultimate goal of psychology is betterment of humankind and formulation of

universal principles.
 SCOPE
Behavior

O-vert (Extrovert) Covert (Introvert)

Goals

Description Explanation Prediction Control/Improve

fact collect on reality basis

MAJOR PERSPECTIVES OF PSYCHOLOGY

 A perspective is an approach that involves certain assumptions regarding human

behavior.

 Seven major perspectives of psychology are as follows :

 Biological perspective
 Behavioral perspective
 Humanistic perspective
 Evolutionary perspective
 Cognitive perspective
 Psychodynamic perspective
 Socio-cultural perspective
1. BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

 The biological perspective is a way of looking at psychological issues by studying the

physical basis for animal and human behavior. It is one of the
major perspectives in psychology and involves such things as studying the brain,
immune system, nervous system, and genetics.
 One of the major debates in psychology has long centered over the relative contributions
of nature versus nurture. Those who take up the nurture side of the debate suggest that it is
the environment that plays the greatest role in shaping behavior. The biological perspective
tends to stress the importance of nature.
 E.g.- Consider an issue like aggression. The biological viewpoint would involve looking at
the biological roots that lie behind aggressive behaviors. Someone who takes the biological
perspective might consider how certain types of brain injury might lead to aggressive
actions. Or they might consider genetic factors that can contribute to such displays of
behavior.
2. BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE

 The behavioral perspective is the psychological approach that suggests that the keys to
understanding development are observable behavior and external stimuli in the
environment. Behaviorism is a theory of learning, and learning theories focus on how we
respond to events or stimuli rather than emphasizing internal factors that motivate our
actions. These theories provide an explanation of how experience can change what we do.
 For example, getting a new car will motivate a teenager to graduate high school.
Getting money will motivate an adult to go to work every day. Different types of
motivation can be used in different ways.
 Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are based on behavioral perspective.
3. HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE

 The humanistic perspective is a way of evaluating an individual as a whole, rather than

looking at them only through a smaller aspect of their person. It is a branch of psychology
that relates to the idea of being entirely unique and your own individual.
 The humanistic perspective considers the hierarchy of needs that an individual has and
then considers which are the most important. There are a number of different needs that an
individual will have. Each of the needs listed below are important to the overall needs and
wants of any member of the human race. They are listed below in order from the least
important to the most important according to this hierarchy. These needs include:
 1. Physiological
 2. Safety
 3. Belonging/love
 4. Esteem
 5. Self-actualization
 Each of these needs is crucial to the happiness of the individual. Each one of these needs is slightly
different in importance though each is necessary to some effect. First, physiological needs include hunger
and thirst. These are very important to life however, they are actually less important to the individual than
other needs. An individual will work towards getting food and liquid that they need in order to survive,
however, they don’t find this as important to their wellbeing as other aspects on the hierarchy of needs.
 Safety comes next in importance and refers to an individual being able to feel secure in their life.
Belonging is next important because of an intrinsic need within the human race to belong and feel loved
by someone. This is followed by the importance of esteem or feeling like one is recognized for the things
that they are capable of and the things they have done. By feeling recognition as well as feeling positive
about yourself, one can accomplish the esteem necessary for happiness.
 The final aspect of the hierarchy of needs is the most important, self-actualization. This is where an
individual will achieve their full potential and it is actually what an individual will work towards more
than anything else. If an individual is able to reach self-actualization they will be better able to achieve
happiness.
 Example:
 Kelsey is new in her school. She is worried about fitting in and about making new friends.
Her first day at the new school she decides to join a few clubs to help her meet new people.
She steps outside of her comfort zone to talk to more people and finds a few that become
her friends very quickly.
 Kelsey is reacting to an intrinsic need for friendship, self-esteem and self-actualization.
This requires her to reach out to other people and try to make new friendships as she gets
used to the new place to live. The humanistic perspective says that in order to be happy,
Kelsey has an inherent need to adapt her life and become even happier. She will work
towards these changes because of those inherent needs.
4. EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE

 The evolutionary perspective is related to the scientific understanding of evolution. It considers

the way that different traits within any individual will change throughout different generations
and eras. This perspective relates to the concept of natural selection and how it has changed
many things about the way that the mind works.
 According to the evolutionary perspective, the only reason that the human race continues to
survive and continues to function in the best way possible is through natural selection. This is
believed to be the way that the human race has come from the caveman era to the modern era as
far as skills, traits and abilities.
* Natural selection is the process through which populations of living organisms adapt and
change.*
 Example :
 Every winter, northern states within the United States and areas of Canada will witness thousands
of birds flying to the south. These birds fly in a ‘V’ shaped pattern which may extend very long but
they always fly in this pattern and they always fly south. Every so often the lead bird will switch
out and another will take their place. These actions repeat every year when the weather starts to get
cold.
This is an example of the way that the evolutionary perspective applies to animals. Likely, no
one had to teach these birds that they need to fly south for the winter. These birds intrinsically know
that they need to go to a warmer climate and they know how to do it. They also intrinsically know that
they need to fly in a certain formation in order to travel faster and when their lead bird gets tired they
know to switch out for someone else. These behaviors are not as much learned as intrinsically known
by the birds because they are key to their survival. This is also natural selection at work.
5.COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

 The cognitive perspective, operates on the belief that the brain is the most important aspect in
relation to the way that an individual behaves or thinks. This perspective states that to
understand someone, you must first be able to understand what is happening in their mind.
 This theory is also interested in the memory, perception (both of the self and of others), and
problem solving. It then considers the way in which each of these areas relates to the behavior of
the individual in any given situation.
 Example 2:
 Tom wants to impress his boss with his next presentation but every time he thinks about
practicing the presentation he gets anxious. He decides not to practice because he doesn’t like
the feeling. In the past Tom completed a presentation for his boss and the boss did not like it.
Tom feels anxious that the boss will not like his next presentation either and does not practice.
Because Tom has had a bad experience with his boss in the past his subconscious mind has tied
this in with his present experience. He is convinced that the next experience will be the same as the
past experience because his mind continues to make the connection between a presentation with the
boss and the last presentation that he made. Until he can overcome this connection he will not be
able to create a positive presentation that the boss will like.
 6.PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE

 The psychodynamic approach includes all the theories in psychology that see human functioning
based upon the interaction of drives and forces within the person, particularly the unconscious, and
between the different structures of the personality.
 The words psychodynamic and psychoanalytic are often confused. Remember that Freud’s theories
were psychoanalytic, whereas the term ‘psychodynamic’ refers to his theories and those of his
followers.
 The term psychodynamic itself generally refers to both the mind’s mental “forces” and the
psychological conflict that can arise between them.
 Describes human being in terms of these themes:
1. structure of personality- id, ego and superego
2. level of consciousness- conscious, preconscious, and unconscious
3. defense mechanism of psychosexual stages of development
1. STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY
 According to Sigmund Freud, human personality is complex and has more than a single component. In
his famous psychoanalytic theory, Freud states that personality is composed of three elements known
as the id, the ego, and the superego. These elements work together to create complex human
behaviors.
 The Id
 According to Freud, the id is the source of all psychic energy, making it the primary component of
personality.1
 The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth.
 This aspect of personality is entirely unconscious and includes instinctive and primitive behaviors.
 The id is driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate gratification of all desires,
wants, and needs.1
 If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state of anxiety or tension. For example,
an increase in hunger or thirst should produce an immediate attempt to eat or drink.
 The id is very important early in life because it ensures that an infant's needs are met. If the infant
is hungry or uncomfortable, they will cry until the demands of the id are satisfied. Young infants
are ruled entirely by the id; there is no reasoning with them when these needs demand
 The Ego
 According to Freud, the ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the id can be
expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world.
 The ego functions in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind.
 The ego is the personality component responsible for dealing with reality.
 Everyone has an ego. The term ego is sometimes used to describe your cohesive awareness of
your personality, but personality and ego are not the same. The ego represents just one
component of your full personality.
 The ego operates based on the reality principle, which strives to satisfy the id's desires in
realistic and socially appropriate ways. The reality principle weighs the costs and benefits of an
action before deciding to act upon or abandon impulses.
 Having a strong ego means having a strong sense of self-awareness.
 The Superego
 The last component of personality to develop is the superego.
 According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at around age five.
 The superego holds the internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire from our parents
and society (our sense of right and wrong).
 The superego provides guidelines for making judgments.
 The superego has two parts:
 The conscience includes information about things that are viewed as bad by parents and society.
These behaviors are often forbidden and lead to bad consequences, punishments, or feelings of
guilt and remorse.
 The ego ideal includes the rules and standards for behaviors that the ego aspires to.
 The superego tries to perfect and civilize our behavior. It suppresses all id's unacceptable urges and
struggles to make the ego act upon idealistic standards rather than on realistic principles. The
superego is present in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. For example, if you give in to
the urges of the id, the superego is what will cause you to feel a sense of guilt or even shame about
your actions.
7.SOCIO-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE
 Sociocultural theory is an emerging field of psychology that looks at the contributions of
society to individual development. Psychologist Lev Vygotsky believed that parents,
caregivers, peers, and the culture at large are responsible for developing the brain's
higher-order functions. According to Vygotsky, human development relies on social
interaction and, therefore, can differ among cultures.
 Sociocultural theory focuses on how mentors and peers influence individual learning, but
also on how cultural beliefs and attitudes affect how learning takes place.