BRAIN AND STRUCTURE

 The brain is a complex organ that controls

thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor
skills, vision, breathing, temperature, hunger
and every process that regulates our body.
Together, the brain and spinal cord that
extends from it make up the central nervous
system, or CNS.
 How does the brain work?
 The brain sends and receives chemical and electrical signals
throughout the body. Different signals control different
processes, and your brain interprets each. Some make you
feel tired, for example, while others make you feel pain.
 Some messages are kept within the brain, while others are
relayed through the spine and across the body’s vast network
of nerves to distant extremities. To do this, the central
nervous system relies on billions of neurons (nerve cells).
 Main Parts of the Brain and Their Functions
 At a high level, the brain can be divided into the cerebrum,
brainstem and cerebellum.
 Cerebrum
 The cerebrum (front of brain) comprises gray matter (the cerebral cortex) and white
matter at its center. The largest part of the brain, the cerebrum initiates and
coordinates movement and regulates temperature. Other areas of the cerebrum
enable speech, judgment, thinking and reasoning, problem-solving, emotions and
learning. Other functions relate to vision, hearing, touch and other senses.
 Cerebral Cortex
 Cortex is Latin for “bark,” and describes the outer gray matter covering of the
cerebrum. The cortex has a large surface area due to its folds, and comprises about
half of the brain’s weight.
 The cerebral cortex is divided into two halves, or hemispheres. It is covered with
ridges (gyri) and folds (sulci). The two halves join at a large, deep sulcus (the
interhemispheric fissure, AKA the medial longitudinal fissure) that runs from the front
of the head to the back. The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body, and
the left half controls the right side of the body. The two halves communicate with one
another through a large, C-shaped structure of white matter and nerve pathways
called the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum is in the center of the cerebrum.
 Brainstem
 The brainstem (middle of brain) connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. The brainstem includes the midbrain,
the pons and the medulla.
 Midbrain. The midbrain (or mesencephalon) is a very complex structure with a range of different neuron clusters
(nuclei and colliculi), neural pathways and other structures. These features facilitate various functions, from hearing
and movement to calculating responses and environmental changes. The midbrain also contains the substantia nigra,
an area affected by Parkinson’s disease that is rich in dopamine neurons and part of the basal ganglia, which enables
movement and coordination.
 Pons. The pons is the origin for four of the 12 cranial nerves, which enable a range of activities such as tear
production, chewing, blinking, focusing vision, balance, hearing and facial expression. Named for the Latin word for
“bridge,” the pons is the connection between the midbrain and the medulla.
 Medulla. At the bottom of the brainstem, the medulla is where the brain meets the spinal cord. The medulla is
essential to survival. Functions of the medulla regulate many bodily activities, including heart rhythm, breathing,
blood flow, and oxygen and carbon dioxide levels. The medulla produces reflexive activities such as sneezing,
vomiting, coughing and swallowing.
 The spinal cord extends from the bottom of the medulla and through a large opening in the bottom of the skull.
Supported by the vertebrae, the spinal cord carries messages to and from the brain and the rest of the body.
 Cerebellum
 The cerebellum (“little brain”) is a fist-sized portion of the brain located at the back of the head, below the temporal
and occipital lobes and above the brainstem. Like the cerebral cortex, it has two hemispheres. The outer portion
contains neurons, and the inner area communicates with the cerebral cortex. Its function is to coordinate voluntary
muscle movements and to maintain posture, balance and equilibrium. New studies are exploring the cerebellum’s
roles in thought, emotions and social behavior, as well as its possible involvement in addiction, autism and
schizophrenia.
 Frontal lobe. The largest lobe of the brain, located in the front of the head,
the frontal lobe is involved in personality characteristics, decision-making
and movement. Recognition of smell usually involves parts of the frontal
lobe. The frontal lobe contains Broca’s area, which is associated with speech
ability.
 Parietal lobe. The middle part of the brain, the parietal lobe helps a person
identify objects and understand spatial relationships (where one’s body is
compared with objects around the person). The parietal lobe is also
involved in interpreting pain and touch in the body. The parietal lobe houses
Wernicke’s area, which helps the brain understand spoken language.
 Occipital lobe. The occipital lobe is the back part of the brain that is
involved with vision.
 Temporal lobe. The sides of the brain, temporal lobes are involved in short-
term memory, speech, musical rhythm and some degree of smell
recognition.
 Deeper Structures Within the Brain
 Pituitary Gland
 Sometimes called the “master gland,” the pituitary gland is a pea-sized structure found deep in the brain
behind the bridge of the nose. The pituitary gland governs the function of other glands in the body, regulating
the flow of hormones from the thyroid, adrenals, ovaries and testicles. It receives chemical signals from the
hypothalamus through its stalk and blood supply.
 Hypothalamus
 The hypothalamus is located above the pituitary gland and sends it chemical messages that control its
function. It regulates body temperature, synchronizes sleep patterns, controls hunger and thirst and also
plays a role in some aspects of memory and emotion.
 Amygdala
 Small, almond-shaped structures, an amygdala is located under each half (hemisphere) of the brain. Included
in the limbic system, the amygdalae regulate emotion and memory and are associated with the brain’s
reward system, stress, and the “fight or flight” response when someone perceives a threat.
 Hippocampus
 A curved seahorse-shaped organ on the underside of each temporal lobe, the hippocampus is part of a larger
structure called the hippocampal formation. It supports memory, learning, navigation and perception of
space. It receives information from the cerebral cortex and may play a role in Alzheimer’s disease.
 Pineal Gland
 The pineal gland is located deep in the brain and attached by a stalk to the top of the third ventricle. The
pineal gland responds to light and dark and secretes melatonin, which regulates circadian rhythms and the
sleep-wake cycle.