CHAPTER THREE

CROP WATER REQUIREMENT

1
 CROP WATER NEED
Irrigation water applied to crop is lost due to
Consumptive use(CU), runoff and deep percolation.
CU includes ET loss (>99%) and water required by
the plants for their metabolic activities (<1%).
Thus, CU≈Etcrop
Total water demand of crops is made up of:
i. Crop water use: includes evaporation and
transpiration
ii. Leaching requirement: a fraction of water to
be added to remove salts from the root zone.
iii.Losses of water due to deep seepage in
canals and losses due to the inefficiency of
application. 2
 CROP WATER NEED…
The crop water need (ET crop) is defined as the
depth (or amount) of water needed to meet the
water loss through evapotranspiration.
The crop water need always refers to a crop
grown under optimal conditions, i.e. a uniform crop,
actively growing, completely shading the ground,
free of diseases, and favorable soil conditions
(including fertility and water).
The crop thus reaches its full production potential
under the given environment.

3
 CROP WATER NEED…
The crop water need mainly depends on:
The climate: in a sunny and hot climate crops
need more water per day than in a cloudy and
cool climate
The crop type: crops like maize or sugarcane
need more water than crops like millet or
sorghum
The growth stage of the crop; fully grown
crops need more water than crops that have just
been planted.

4
 DUTY-DELTA
RELATIONSHIP
Duty of water:
 is its capacity to irrigate land.
 It is the relation between the area of the land irrigated and
the quantity of water required.
 Duty (D) is defined as the area of the land, which can be
irrigated if one cumec (m3/sec) of water was applied to the
land continuously for the entire base period of the crop and
it is expressed in hectares / cumecs.
Base period (B):
 the base period is the period between the first watering
and the last watering. The base period is slightly different
from the crop period, which is the period between the time
of sowing and the time of harvesting the crop.
5
 Delta (Δ ):
 is the total depth of water required by a crop during
the entire base period. If the entire quantity of applied
water were spread uniformly on the land surface, the
depth of water would have been equal to delta. Thus
the delta (in m) of any crop can be determined by
dividing the total quantity of water (in ha-m) required
by the crop by the area of the land (in ha)

Delta ( Δ ) = Total quantity of water (ha-m)

Total area of land (ha)

6
 CON….
The relation between duty, base period and delta, can be
obtained as follows.

 Considering the area of land of D-hectares and If Duty is

expressed in ha/cumecs the total quantity of water used in
the base period of B days is equal to that obtained by a
continuous flow of 1 cumec for B days.

Quantity of water= 1*B*24*60*60*, m3 -------------------------- (a)

 If Delta (Δ ) is the total depth of water in meters supplied

to the land of D- hectares, the quantity of water is also
given by:
Quantity of water = (D *104)* Δ m3 ------------------( b)
7
 CON…..
Equating the volumes of water given in egn_s
(a) and (b)

1*B*24*60*60*m3 = (D*104)* Δ*m3

D = 8.64 B /Δ

Δ = 8.64B /D

Where D = in ha/cumec
Δ = In m
B = in days
8
 FACTORS AFFECTING DUTY

- Dutyof water depends up on different factors. In general,

the smaller the losses, the greater is duty because one cumec
of water will be able to irrigate larger area.
Type of soil
 Type of crop and base period
structure of soil
 Slop of ground
 Climatic condition
 Method of application of water
 Salt content of soil
9
INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE ON CROP
WATER NEEDS (ETO )

The major climatic factors which influence the

crop water needs are:
sunshine
temperature
humidity
wind speed
The highest crop water needs are found in
areas which are hot, dry, windy and sunny
10
 ETO…
The influence of the climate on crop water
needs is given by the reference crop
evapotranspiration (ETo).
The ETo is usually expressed in millimetres
per unit of time, e.g. mm/day, mm/month, or
mm/season.
Grass has been taken as the reference crop.

11
 ETO…
Definition
ETo is the rate of evapotranspiration from a
large area, covered by green grass, 8 to 15
cm tall, which grows actively, completely
shades the ground and which is not short of
water.
There are several methods to determine the
Eto. They are either:
Experimental, using an evaporation pan, or
Theoretical, using measured climatic data,
12
 ETO…
Pan Evaporation Method
Evaporation pans provide a measurement of
the combined effect of temperature,
humidity, wind speed and sunshine on the
reference crop evapotranspiration ETo.
The pan is used to estimate reference ETo
by observing the evaporation loss from a
water surface (Epan) and applying empirical
coefficients (Kpan) to relate pan evaporation
to ETo thus:
ETo =Kp x Epan 13
 ETO…
Pan coefficient for different pan types
Pan Dimensions Pan Coefficient

US Class A 1.2 m Diameter; 250 mm 0.7 (0.6 to 0.8)

Deep
Australian -900 mm Diameter; 900 mm 0.9 ( 0.6 to 1.2)
Pan Deep.
-Large Pan: 1200 mm
Diameter and 850 mm Deep

British Tank 1.83 m (Square) 0.9 (Very

Variable)
14
 ETO…
ETo from weather data
ETo is commonly computed from weather data.
A large number of empirical equations have been
developed for assessing ETo from weather data.
Some of these methods include:
 Blaney-Criddle,
 Penman,
 Thornthwaite,
 Radiation,
 Hargreaves,
Most of these methods have been found to only
work in specific locations. 15
 ETO…
Following an Expert Consultation by Food
and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in May
1990, the FAO Penman-Monteith method is
now recommended as the standard method
for the definition and computation of the
reference evapotranspiration.
The FAO Penman-Monteith equation
calculation procedure can be freely
downloaded from internet (CROPWAT).

16
 ETO…
The FAO Penman-Monteith equation is given as:

17
 INFLUENCE OF CROP TYPE
ON CROP WATER NEEDS (KC)
This section deals with the influence of the crop
type and growth stage on crop water needs.
In other words, this section discusses the
relationship between the reference grass crop
and the crop actually grown in the field.
The relationship between the reference grass
crop and the crop actually grown is given by the
crop factor, Kc, as shown in the following formula:
ET crop= Kc x ETo
18
 KC…
The crop factor, Kc, mainly depends on:

The type of crop- Fully developed maize, with its

large leaf area will be able to transpire, and thus
use, more water than the reference grass crop:
Kc, maize is higher than1.
The growth stage of the crop- A certain crop will
use more water once it is fully developed,
compared to a crop which has just recently been
planted.
The climate- The climate influences the duration
of the total growing period and the various growth
stages. In a cool climate a certain crop will grow
slower than in a warm climate. 19
 KC…
Thus, to determine the crop factor Kc, it is necessary,
for each crop, to know the total length of the growing
season and the lengths of the various growth stages.
The following figure shows plant growth stages

20
 KC…
There are four stages of crop growth:
Initial stage: germination stage (<10% ground
cover). Kc value doesn’t show significant
change
Crop Development Stage: From end of initial
stage to 70-80% ground cover. Kc show
significant increase over time
Mid-season stage: From full ground cover to
time of starting to mature. It covers the
flowering stage of the crop. Kc value doesn’t
show significant change
Late season stage: from end of mid-season
stage until full maturity or harvest. Kc shows
significant drop over time 21
 KC…

Notes on Kc determination
As the growing period heavily depends on local
circumstances (e.g. local crop varieties) it is
always best to obtain these data locally.
Approximate length of growing period and
duration of growth stages for various field Crops
is provided in FAO 56 paper
The sum of the four growth stages should
always equal the total growing period.
Per crop, four crop factors have to be
determined: one crop factor for each of the four
growth stages. FAO 56 has tabular values of kc
for various crops and growth stages. 22
CROP EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ETC)
Crop evapotranspiration is calculated
by multiplying ETo by Kc, a coefficient
expressing the difference in
evapotranspiration between the cropped
and reference grass surface.
General procedure for calculating ETc is
outlined as follows:

23
 EXAMPLE
#Q2.Calculate the seasonal crop water requirement
of maize [25/35/45/30] If the average Kc is 0.65 and
ETo =7mm/day.

Soln.
Daily ETc = Kc. ETo = 0.65*7= 4.55mm/day
Seasonal ETc = Daily ETc* Growing period
= 4.55 * 135 days = 614.25mm

24
 DIRECT DETERMINATION OF ET
ET can be determined using:
Direct Method
Indirect Method (using pan evaporation and weather
parameters)- already discussed
Direct measurement of evapotranspiration is not
easy but accurate.
The method involves a controlled monitoring of input
and output parameters. i.e. It uses the water balance
equation to estimate ET.
The following are the two well known direct methods:
Lysimeter method
Soil Moisture Depleting study
25
 DIRECT DETERMINATION OF ET…

Lysimeter method
Lysimeter is a concrete container in which a volume of soil
planted with vegetation is placed to isolate it hydrologically
from the surrounding soil so that ET can be calculated by:
ET = I+P–DP–(θf–θi).Dz
Where:
I=irrigation
P = effective precipitation
DP=Deep percolation
θf and θi = final and initial soil moisture contents
Dz= root zone depth
As lysimeters are difficult and expensive to construct and as
their operation and maintenance require special care, their
use is limited to specific research and evaluation purposes. 26
 DIRECT DETERMINATION OF ET…
Soil Moisture Depletion study
Determination of soil moisture contents
before and after irrigation application. i.e.
ET = ∑(θf – θi).Dz
Where:
θf and θi = soil moisture percentage before
and after irrigation.
Dz = depth of root zone

27
 IRRIGATION REQUIREMENT
Net Irrigation Requirement:
It is the depth of moisture that must be supplied by
irrigation to satisfy evapotranspiration need of the
crop minus effective precipitation.
NIR = ET – Pe
Where:
NIR is the net irrigation requirement;
ET is evapotranspiration,
Pe is effective precipitation
Pe is the component of rainfall that is available to
crops. It can be estimated as 70% of total rainfall.
28
 IRRIGATION REQUIREMENT…
Gross Irrigation Requirement:
It is the Net Irrigation Requirement divided by
Irrigation Efficiency.
GIR = NIR/E
Irrigation efficiency accounts for losses in storage
and distribution systems, losses in application
systems as well as operation and management
losses.
Irrigation Efficiency depends on the method of
applying irrigation Water

29
 IRRIGATION REQUIREMENT…

Irrigation efficiencies
Not all water taken from a source (river, well)
reaches the root zone of the plants. Part of the
water is lost during transport through the canals
and in the fields.
The remaining part is stored in the root zone
and eventually used by the plants. In other
words, only part of the water is used efficiently.
To express which percentage of irrigation water
is used efficiently and which percentage is lost,
the term irrigation efficiency is used.
30
 TYPES OF IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY
Water Conveyance efficiency (Ec)
This term is used to measure the efficiency of water
conveyance system associated with the canal
network, watercourses and field channels. It is also
applicable where the water is conveyed in channels
from the well to the individual fields. It is expressed
as follows:
Ec= (Wf/Wd) * 100
Where Ec = water conveyance efficiency, %
Wf = Water delivered to the irrigated plot (At
the field supply channel)
Wd = Water diverted from the source.

31
 CON,…

. Water application Efficiency (Ea)

After the water reaches the field supply Channel, it is important

to apply the water as efficiently as possible. A measure of how
efficiently this is done is the water application efficiency.
Ea= Ws/Wf *100
Where Ea = application efficiency, %
Ws = water stored in the root zone of the plants.
Wf = Water delivered to the irrigated plot (At the field
supply channel)
Water application efficiency below 100 percent are due to
seepage looses from the field distribution channels, deep
percolation below the crop root zone and runoff loses from the
tail end of borders and furrows ( in very long fields
32
 CON…

. Water storage efficiency (Es)

Small irrigation may lead to high water application
efficiencies, yet the irrigation practice may be poor.
The concept of water storage efficiency is useful in
evaluating this problem. This concept relates how
completely the water needed prior to irrigation has
been stored in the root zone during irrigation.
Es= Ws/WN*100
Where, Es = Water storage efficiency, % Ws=
water stored in the rot zone of the plants.
Wn = Water needed in the root zone prior to
irrigation
33
 CON…

Water Distribution Efficiency (Ed)

This shows how uniformly water is applied to
the field along the irrigation run. In sandy soils
there is generally over irrigation at upper
reaches of the run where as in clayey soils,
there is over- irrigation at the lower reaches of
the run.
Ed= (1-y/d)*100
Where, Ed = water distribution efficiency, %
d = average depth
of water penetration
y = average deviation from d.
34
 IRRIGATION REQUIREMENT…
The scheme irrigation efficiency (e in %) is that
part of the water pumped or diverted through the
scheme inlet which is used effectively by the plants.
The scheme irrigation efficiency can be sub-divided
into:
the conveyance efficiency (ec) which represents
the efficiency of water transport in canals, and
the field application efficiency (ea) which
represents the efficiency of water application in the
field.
The conveyance efficiency (ec) mainly depends on
the length of the canals, the soil type or
permeability of the canal banks and the condition of
the canals. 35
 IRRIGATION REQUIREMENT…
The following table provides some indicative values of the
conveyance efficiency (ec), considering the length of the
canals and the soil type in which the canals are dug.

Earthen canals Lined

canals
Soil type Sand Loam Clay

Canal length

Long (> 2000m) 60% 70% 80% 95%

Medium (200-2000m) 70% 75% 85% 95%

Short (< 200m) 80% 85% 90% 95%

36
 IRRIGATION REQUIREMENT…
The field application efficiency (ea) mainly depends on the
irrigation method and the level of farmer discipline. Some
indicative values of the average field application efficiency
(ea) are given in Table below
Irrigation methods Field application efficiency
Surface irrigation (border, furrow, basin) 60%
Sprinkler irrigation 75%
Drip irrigation 90%

Once the conveyance and field application efficiency have

been determined, the scheme irrigation efficiency (e) can be
calculated, using the following formula:
e=(ec*ea)/100
e of 50-60% is good; 40% is reasonable, while 20-30% is
poor. 37
 IRRIGATION SCHEDULING
Keys to efficient irrigation are:
a) Application of irrigation water at proper times
b) Application of correct quantity of water during each
application
When to irrigate?
For efficient water use on the farm, a farmer needs to be
able to predict when his crops need irrigation. This can be
done by:
Observing the plants;
Keeping a Water Balance Sheet
By Measuring the Soil Moisture Content or
Using Computer Software
38
 IRRIGATION SCHEDULING…
Example Water Balance Sheet
Irrigation Plan: Apply 30 mm of water at 30 mm deficit.

Date Estimated ET Rainfall Accumulated Irrigation

(mm) (mm) Deficit (mm) Period
5.1.05 4.2 - 4.2
6.1.05 3.5 - 7.7
7.1.05 3.8 - 11.5
8.1.05 4.5 - 16.0
9.1.05 5.2 - 21.2
10.1.05 5.1 2.0 24.3
11.1.05 5.5 - 29.8
12.1.05 5.1 - 4.9 (34.9) 30.0
13.1.05 4.9 - 9.8
etc. 39
 IRRIGATION SCHEDULING…
How much to Apply?
Irrigation is normally required to keep the soil water
content between FC and θc. This range is called
RAW.
In irrigation system design, net irrigation
requirement is interchangeably used with RAW. It is
calculated as:
NIR = RAW = (FC – θc).Dz
= MAD. TAW
= MAD. (FC – PWP).Dz
MAD = maximum allowable depletion = 0.50 for
most crops 40
 IRRIGATION SCHEDULING…
How frequent to irrigate?
This refers to the irrigation interval which is the number of
days between two successive irrigation application. It is
given by:
f = NIR/ETc
Irrigation frequency therefore depends upon both soil and
crop properties.
For shallow soil having shallow rooted crops, irrigation
frequency will be small and water will need be applied
more often
During germination and flowering stage, crop must be
irrigated frequently as permissible depletion would be
small. 41
 Soil Moisture content

θc
FC

PWP
f

Time, days

42
 IRRIGATION PERIOD
It is the number of days allowed to complete one
irrigation cycle in a given area.
Irrigation period can not be greater than the irrigation
interval.
Example: if the calculated irrigation interval is 7 days
and if an irrigated area is divided into 6 sub-areas to be
irrigated in shift. The irrigation period is 6days.
For design purposes, irrigation interval = irrigation
period

43
 DESIRED IRRIGATION DESIGN
CAPACITY (QC)
This is the flow rate determined by the water requirement,
irrigation time, irrigation period and the irrigation application
efficiency.
It is the flow rate required at the water supply source e.g. pumps
from a reservoir, or a borehole required to irrigate a given area.
It is the flow rate required to determine channel x-sections and
is given as: Q  A. d
c F. H . Ea
Where,
 Qc is the Desired Design Capacity;
 d is the Net Irrigation Depth (RAW)
 F is Irrigation Period;
 H is the number of Hours the System is operated (hrs/day) and
 Ea is the Irrigation Efficiency
44