MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE KYRGYZ REPUBLIC

TSIC"INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF KYRGYZSTAN"

INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL OF MEDICINE
The Direction of "Medicine“
General Hygiene

HYGIENE OF NUTRITION
.

Dr. Kubatbek Sadyrbekov

Ph.D. MPA

Bishkek 2022
 Key facts
• A healthy diet provides protection against malnutrition in all its forms, as well as
noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), including diabetes, heart disease, stroke, and
cancer.
• Unhealthy diets and lack of physical activity are major health risks worldwide.
• The practice of healthy eating is formed in the early stages of life - breastfeeding
promotes healthy growth and improves cognitive development and can have a
beneficial effect on health in the long run, for example, reduces the likelihood of
gaining excess weight or obesity and the development of NCDs later in life.
• Access to sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious food is key to sustaining life and
promoting good health.
• Unsafe food containing harmful bacteria, viruses, parasites or chemical substances,
causes more than 200 diseases – ranging from diarrhoea to cancers.
• An estimated 600 million people fall ill after eating contaminated food and 420 000 -
die every year.
 Principles of Rational Nutrition. Prevention of
Alimentary Diseases
• Nutrition hygiene is a section of hygiene studying the influence of factors
connected with nutrition on a human organism and developing
recommendations for a balanced diet. A part of nutrition hygiene is
nutriology — a science about nutrients (food substances).
• According to WHO‘s data, about 70 % of all diseases are directly or indirectly
caused by a wrong nutrition or deterioration of food quality.
• The basic sections of nutrition hygiene are the following:
• A rational nutrition is nutrition of a healthy person for maintaining and
improving his health,
– A medical or dietary nutrition is for treatment of patients,
– A medical-prophylactic nutrition includes special diets for those working
in harmful conditions, i.e. with chemical substances, radiation, etc.
– A preventive nutrition is for people with risk factors of development of
diseases (atherosclerosis, diabetes, etc.).
Classification of Types of Nutrition According to
Purpose and Biological Effect

Type of Purpose Group Biological effect

nutrition
Rational prophylaxis of healthy people non-specific
nutritional diseases

Preventive prophylaxis of diseases risk groups of specific

of a multifactor nature diabetes, etc.
Medical- prophylaxis of people working in protective
prophylactic occupational diseases harmful conditions

Medical correction of metaboliс patients pharmacological

(dietary) disturbances
 Classification of Alimentary Diseases
– Primary (exogenic) alimentary diseases. They are connected with
insufficient or surplus nutrients or energy in diet. Their main feature is that
aetiology, pathogenesis, symptomatology, prevention and treatment are
connected only with nutrition.
– Secondary аlimentary-conditioned diseases. They are caused by diseases of
or- gans and systems resulting in disturbances of food assimilation, increase
of disinte- gration and consumption of nutrients. They may be infectious,
surgical, oncologic illnesses. To these also endogenic avitaminoses, cerebral,
hypothalamic, endocrinic adiposity or dystrophy refer.
• The differential diagnostics of the 1st and 2nd group is very important for the
doctor, because their therapeutic approach is completely different: in the first
group only the correction of nutrition is necessary, while in the second — the
treatment of a primary disease plus dietetic therapy, application of biologically
active additives (BAA) are required.
 Classification of Alimentary Diseases

– Diseases of multifactorial etiology, including the alimentary factor.

They develop on a background of genetic predisposition, nervous-
emotional causes and other factors, such as atherosclerosis,
hypertension, urolithiases and cholelithic diseases, gout,
gastrointestinal tract diseases, oncopathology, diabetes mellitus. In
occurrence of these diseases nutrition is a risk factor, but not the only
reason. Prophylaxis is a preventive nutrition, dietetic therapy at the
developed pathology.
– Diseases connected with availability of harmful factors in food.
These are food poisonings, intestinal infections, helminthiases. Their
prevention is control of food quality.
– Food intolerance is a set of clinical reactions to food: a food allergy
(immunopathol- ogy), pseudo-allergy (individual reactions to separate
substances), idiosyncrasy of food owing to enzymopathies.
 Classification of Alimentary Diseases (I group)
• Diseases and syndromes of malnutrition:
– Protein-calorie deficiency (PCD) of various degree, alimentary
marasmus, physical development delay owing to PCD.
– Protein deficiency, including kwashiorkor (infantile pellagra)
– Avitaminoses.
– Mineral deficiency: iron-deficiency anemia, endemic goiter
(hypothyroidism), caries, hypozincosis, hyposelenosis, etc.
• Diseases and syndromes of excess nutrition:
– Surplus of caloric content — alimentary adiposity of 1-4 degrees.
– Hypervitaminoses A and D.
– Syndrome of excess of proteins, fat acids.
– Excess of mineral substances — fluorosis, selenosis, molybdenum
gout.
 Principles of Rational Nutrition
• Conformity of caloric content of nutrition to the daily energy consumption. This is the main principle of rational
nutrition with which the analysis of nutrition begins.
• Methods of Control
• Caloric content of nutrition is estimated by:
– a table-calculation method (taking into account a dietary intake and according to tables of food value of
products) with the help of calorimetric coefficients.
• Calorimetric coefficients of nutrients:
• 1g proteins and carbohydrates = 4 Kcal, 1g fats = 9 Kcal.
• Proteins give 14 %, fats — 30 %, carbohydrates — 56 % of daily calories.
– a laboratory method — burning of 100 g of food product in a calorimetric bomb.
• Daily Energy Consumption
• It is composed of the basic exchange + energy consumption for work + 10 % of the ba- sic exchange for food
digestion.
• The basic exchange is calculated by tables in accordance with sex, age, height and weight.
• Ways of estimation of energy consumption for work:
– Table-chronometric method (by time of performing any activity),
– Direct calorimetry (in the calorimetric chamber)
– Indirect calorimetry (by respiratory coefficient = O2/CO2)
 Balanced nutrition

• The diet should contain all necessary nutrients: proteins, fats,

carbohydrates, vitamins, mineral substances in an optimum ratio.
It provides a better absorption and full-value use of food
substances. Examples of balance:
• Ratio of proteins, fats, carbohydrates (P:F:C) = 1:1:4 (an adult
person), 1:1:5 (hard physical work), 1:0.8:3 (elderly people), 1:1:3
(children).
• Ratio of proteins: of animal origin — 60 %, of vegetative origin —
40 %, Ratio of fats: of animal origin — 70-80 %, of vegetable origin
— 20-30 % Ratio of carbohydrates: digestible — 10-15 %,
indigestible — 85-90 %. Ratio Са:P = 1:1.5, etc.
• Methods of control: а) table-calculation, b) laboratory (proteins in
foodstuffs are deter- mined by Keildal, fats — by Sokslet method).
 Optimal diet regimen
• The food should be taken every 4-5 hours (time of evacuation function of the
stomach), i.e. 4-5 times a day. Food intake less than in 2 hours is not optimal
because gastric secretion is suppressed. Nutrition less than 3-4 times a day is
harmful, because of great appetite a person eats plenty of food that leads to
hypercholesterolemia, hyperlipemia, adiposity, etc.
• Taking food at one and the same time (±30 minutes) is of great importance as
a conditioned reflex of digestion is formed. The recommended distribution of
daily caloric content by meals is as follows:
• Breakfast — 25-27 %, lunch — 10-15 %,
• dinner 35-45 %, supper - 10-20 %.
• Methods of control include filling in a questionnaire about a diet and
evaluation of caloric content of each meal.
 Good organoleptic properties of food, its high
digestibility, favorable conditions of taking food.

Safety of food in chemical and epidemiological respect.

•It means absence in foodstuffs of chemical substances or

microbes in amounts higher than allowable levels which may
cause food poisonings.
•Now it is a very important principle in view of global pollution
of biosphere by heavy metals, radionuclides, pesticides, etc.
Ways of control are chemical and bacteriological analyses of
foods and comparison of the results with food standards.
 Value of Various Nutrients in Nutrition.
• Structure of Foods
• Nutrients — proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, mineral
substances.
• Non-alimentary substances are substances adding organoleptic
properties, i.e. color, smell, etc. to foods.
• Antialimentary substances — antitrypsins (in raw egg protein),
antivitamins (ascorbi- nase, thiaminase), antimineral substances
(phytates, oxalates).
• Toxic substances:
– inherent in foods — toxins of poisonous mushrooms, solanine in
potato, etc.
– casually obtained pollutants of the environment — pesticides,
heavy metals, dioxines, etc.
 Functions of Nutrients
Function Nutrients
Energy carbohydrates, fats, proteins, organic
acids, etc.
Plastic proteins, minerals, fats, carbohydrates

Bioregulatory proteins, vitamins, mineral substances

Adaptive-regulatory proteins, water

Immunoregulatory proteins, vitamins, etc.

Treatment-and-rehabilitation dietary foods with the improved content of

nutrients and ade-

quate caloricity
Signal-motivation gustatory and extractives (spice,
seasoning)
 Role of Proteins in Nutrition
• Proteins perform a great number of very important functions in the body: structural
(con- struction of tissues), protective (gamma-globulins, etc.), regulatory
(hormones, enzymes), transport (hemoglobin of blood), energy (14 % of daily
calories).
• According to their value, proteins are classified into high-grade and less high-grade.
• Attributes of High-Grade Proteins
• Presence in proteins of irreplaceable amino acids at an optimal ratio. By this
criterion proteins are placed in the following order: protein of eggs, milk, meat, fish,
soya, sun- flower.
• Good assimilability of protein in organism. There are 3 groups of proteins:
– easily assimilated — milk, fish,
– moderately assimilated — meat, eggs (after thermal processing),
– badly assimilated — leguminous, bread, mushrooms.
• High biological value. After absorption a greater part of irreplaceable amino acids
should be used for the main functions of proteins, except for energy.
 Irreplaceable Amino Acids and Their Functions

• Irreplaceable amino acids are not synthesized in a human organism and should be sup- plied
from outside with foods. Among the 20 amino acids eight are irreplaceable for an adult
person. They are methionine, lysine, tryptophan, leucine, isoleucine, threonine, valine,
pheny- lalanine.
• Methionine. A daily need is 2-3 g. It regulates the exchange of fats, phosphatides and
cholesterol — an antisclerotic factor. It is contained in milk, cottage cheese, eggs, legumes,
meat, fish.
• Lysine. A daily need is 3-5 g. It participates in synthesis of hemoglobin, supports a ni-
trogenous balance, regulates content of Са in blood. It is contained in milk, meat, fish, soya.
Its content in cereals is little.
• Tryptophan. A daily need is 1.6 g. It stimulates growth of tissues, synthesis of blood proteins
and hemoglobin, maintains a nitrogenous balance. It is contained in little portions in
different food proteins.
• For children, in addition to above mentioned, 2 more irreplaceable amino acids are ne-
cessary — аrginine and histidine. They are conditionally irreplaceable, synthesized in the or-
ganism but in insufficient amount for a growing organism, since they stimulate growth,
devel- opment, metabolism, hematosis.
 A Protein Norm and Protein Minimum

• A protein norm is a necessary daily amount of protein for a person, which

allows the protein to fulfill all its functions. It is a part of the nutrition
norms of the population. It depends on age, sex, intensity of work. For
adults on average it makes up 70-100 g a day. The optimal ratio of animal
and vegetable proteins for adults is 50 : 50%, for children 60 : 40%.
• A protein minimum is the necessary amount of protein for maintenance
of nitrogen balance in organism — at that all protein is spent on
decomposition and formation of nitrogen.
• Calculation: daily in the organism 6-7g of nitrogen are lost, 1 g of nitrogen
is formed at de- composition of 6.25 g of protein (upon the whole about
40 g that is less than 50 % of protein norm). At nutrition on this level the
basic functions of protein are not fulfilled, that can result in acquired
immunodeficiency.
 A Protein Norm

Country Men aged 18-59 Women aged 18-59

FAO \ WHO 0.75 0.75
USA 0.80 0.80
Canada 0.77 0.69
England 1.15 1.0
Kyrgyzstan 0.93 — 1.7* 0.96 — 1.4*
KR 0.83 — 1.53* 0.83 — 1.4*
• Role of Fats in Nutrition
• The structure of food fats includes: neutral fats (ethers of
glycerin and fat acids), fatty substances — phosphatides,
mineral substances, fat-soluble vitamins (in some fats).
• Functions of fats in nutrition: energy (30-32% of daily calories,
1g fat gives 9 Kcal), regu- latory, plastic, protective (from
mechanical and temperature effects), gustatory.
• Characteristics of Fat Acids
• According to the content of free (double) links in formula, fat acids are subdivided into saturated,
unsaturated and polyunsaturated.
• Saturated fat acids (SFA) are stearin, palmitic acids in animal fats, butyric and caproic acids — in
vegetable oils. They are nonreactive, absorbed worse than others, perform basically an energy
function. They are contained in the beef, mutton fat. At excessive use they contribute to the
development of atherosclerosis due to plenty of cholesterol and absence of antisclerotic factors.
• Monounsaturated fat acids (MUFA) — oleic acid — contain one free link in the formula; they are
better absorbed, perform basically an energy function. They are found in vege- table fats.
• Polyunsaturated fat acids (PUSA) — linoleic, arachidonic acids (omega-6 family), lino- lenic acid,
etc. (omega-3). They have several free links in the formula. They are the most biologically active
and valuable among fat acids. They fulfill:a regulative function, controlling the cholesterol
exchange (an antisclerotic factor), re- ducing coagulability of blood and permeability of vessels.
– a protective function, increasing the resistance of organism to infections, toxicants, excess
ultra-violet rays (antioxidants).
– a plastic function: PUSA are included into vessel walls and myelinic membranes of the nerves.
• Phosphatide Value
• Fatty substances are those in which one fatty acid is replaced by a phosphoric acid and
nitrogen base. Their representatives are: lecithin, cephalin. They participate in
synthesis of nucleic acids, in cholesterol exchange (an antisclerotic factor). A plastic role
is as follows: they are included into cell protoplasm, especially of the nervous system
and liver. Suppliers are: liv- er, brain, egg yolk, butter, lard, unrefined vegetable oils.
• Sterols. They are divided into phytosterols and zoosterols (Cholesterol). Despite a
widespread opinion about its harm, cholesterol is very important for an organism. Its
plastic function is as follows: it is contained in cell protoplasm, creates elasticity of
tissues as hydro- phylic colloid due to preserving water. A regulative function includes
synthesis of vitamin D, bile acids, sex and steroid hormones. A protective function is
inactivation of hemolytic poisons.
• According to modern concepts the development of atherosclerosis has a multifactorial
etiology, which basis is the disturbance of a fatty exchange and increased endogenic
synthesis of cholesterol; excess of alimentary cholesterol is of a comparatively small
significance — it is an alimentary risk factor of atherosclerosis.
• Value of Carbohydrates in Nutrition
• Functions of carbohydrates include the following:
• an energy function (56 % of caloric content of a diet per day),
1 g = 4 Kcal
• a regulatory function (a cellular tissue stimulates the motility
and secretion of intes- tines)
• a plastic function (carbohydrates are included in the structure
of protoplasm and cel- lular membranes)
• a protective function (carbohydrates are bound to heavy
metals, cholesterol; glucose inactivates cyanides),
• a gustatory function — a sweet taste.
 Classification of Carbohydrates

CHEMICAL HYGIENIC
1.Monosaccharides (Glucose, fructose) 1. Unprotected (refined) from
absorption
2. Disaccharides (Saccharose, lactose) 2. Protected (starch)
3. Polysaccharides (starch, pectins) 3. Overprotected (Cellulose, pectin
substances)

In hygiene carbohydrates are subdivided according to degree of absorption:

•The unprotected (refined) carbohydrates are mono- and disaccharides
(glucose, lac- tose, etc.). They are quickly absorbed in the organism and
supply energy. At consump- tion of plenty of such carbohydrates alimentary
adiposity, diabetes mellitus and caries may develop.
•To protected carbohydrates starch relates. It is slowly absorbed in
organism and sup- plies most of the energy.
•Overprotected carbohydrates are а cellular tissue, pectin substances.
• A Protein Problem and Ways of Its Solving
• On a global scale nowadays in the world 50 % of the necessary amount of protein for nutrition of all
population of the planet is produced. Almost in all countries, especially in those with an insufficient level of
economic development and a low living standard, part of the popu- lation experience either shortage of
protein in general, or shortage of high-grade (animal) pro- teins, that affects the population health.
• The traditional ways of solving a protein problem are as follows:
• Increase of agricultural production by extensive and intensive ways (at these agro- chemicals should be
used, that results in contamination of foods and pollution of bi- osphere)
• Increase of a crop preservation by means of chemicals
• A wide use of protein products of the ocean (but they are very expensive, may cause allergic reactions and
accumulate pollutants from the sea water).
• Isolation of protein concentrates from soya, sunflower and their addition to sausages up to 20-30%.
• Unconventional ways of solving a protein problem include the following:
• Application of microbiological synthesis (growth of some microbes on sugar produc- tion wastes, on oil,
but it is very difficult to refine protein from waste products, and such protein cannot be used in man‘s
nutrition).
• Search of profitable ways of synthesis of irreplaceable amino acids (for the present such chemical synthesis
is very expensive).
 Principles of Sanitary Examination of Foodstuff
• A doctor of any speciality should know the rules of estimation of foodstuff
quality with the purpose of improvement and maintaining a human health.
• The biological and nutrient value of foodstuff is preserved under the condition
of their high quality meeting the demand of standard.
• During reception, storage, transportation or processing the foodstuff can
spoil, become contaminated by chemical substances, microorganisms, etc.
• Therefore it is necessary to carry out a thorough sanitary inspection of
foodstuffs at all stages of their production and realization.
• To determine the quality of foodstuff, a sanitary examination is carried out.
• The doctor of any speciality should be able to reveal changes of parameters of
food quality: organoleptic properties, presence of harmful impurity and
reasons of foodstuff spoiling, and also to establish the order of its realization.
 Methods of Analysis of Food Quality
• Organoleptic — colour, taste, smell and consistence;
• Physical — density, temperature, etc;
• Chemical — content of proteins, fats, carbohydrates and others nutrients;
• Microscopic — finding foreign substances, ova of helminths, etc. in foodstuff under
microscope;
• Bacteriological — finding microorganisms in the food ;
• Biological — biological test of dangerous foodstuff on the laboratory animal;
• Radiometric — the level of radioactivity of the foodstuff. The obtained data are
compared with standards of foodstuffs.
• For this purpose the following documents regulating the quality of foodstuffs exist:
• The State Standard of a food product. This is a document defining the necessary
value of main parameters of the given foodstuff and including the unified, standard
procedures of its definition.
• Temporal Technical Conditions of a food product. It is designed for new products and
includes main parameters of the given product.
 Classification of Foods by Quality
A good-quality product:
Standard — a product, which parameters correspond to the requirements of the State
Standard, (e. g.milk with a 3.2 % fat content)
Non-standard — a product having 1-2 unessential non-standard parameters (e.g. milk
containing fat lower than 2.5 %)
Conditionally suitable product demands the preliminary processing before usage (acidic milk is
subjected to processing for kefir, curd, cheese and other milk products).
A bad quality product has parameters making its usage impossible for man‘s nutrition, e.g. milk
with high contamination by pesticides). The further perspective of such products is
destruction or utilization as forage for cattle, etc.
Falsified products. (Falsificatio from Latin means deception). Properties of such prod- ucts are
changed specially for deceiving the customer (for example, milk diluted with wa- ter).
Except for above mentioned categories of foodstuff quality there is another concept — a
product substitute — a substitute of a natural product officially produced by the state at lack
of natural products (e.g. margarine is a substitute for cow butter). It is estimated according
to the State Standard and may belong to one of the categories of foodstuff quality.
 Sanitary-Hygienic Characteristics of Foods
• Fish is rich in proteins of high biological value. The proteins of fish have a
satisfactory amino acid balance. The fish oils are rich in unsaturated fatty acids
of the omega–3 family having an antisclerotic action and A and D vitamins. Fish
liver oils are the richest source of calcium, phosphorus and A, D vitamins. Fish is
less rich in iron. Sea fish contains iodine, while fresh water fish does not.
• But fish may be a source of some diseases — fish-borne diseases, such as:
• Helminthiasis: Dibothriocephalus latus, opisthorchiasis
• Bacterial infections: salmonellosis, botulism
• Viral infections: Hepatitis A Virus.
• Eggs. Egg contains all the nutrients except for carbohydrates and vitamin C. But
in eggs cholesterol is contained in a dose of 250 mg per egg. Cholesterol
promotes hyper- cholesterolemia and the risk of atherosclerosis. Elderly people
can eat only 2 eggs a week.
• Egg-borne diseases include bacterial infections, e.g. salmonellosis.
 Sanitary-Hygienic Characteristics of Foods
• Meat. Meat contains 15 to 20 % of protein. Meat proteins are a good source of essential
amino acids. The energy provided by meat depends upon its fat content. Iron is
contained in meat in a dose of 2 to 4 mg per 100 g (Table 9). Iron from meat is more
easily absorbed than iron from plants and it is another major quality of meat. Meat
contains some vitamins (A, B6, B2, and PP), minerals, such as phosphorus, iron, zinc. It is
poor in calcium and carbohydrates.
• Liver is extremely rich in many nutrients.
• All meat should be examined by veterinary inspector before sale. It is necessary to exert a
strict sanitary control over places of sale and conditions of keeping fresh meat. Fresh
meat must be wet, of pink colour, elastic and have an agreeable smell. It must be clear
from patho- genic bacteria. If in a slice (40 cm2) of meat not more than 3 cysts are found
out, a special cooking is necessary.
• Meat-borne diseases:
• Helminthisms: Taenia saginata, Taenia soliumand, Trichinella spiralis
• Bacterial infections: tuberculosis, anthrax, brucellosis, salmonellosis
• Viral infections: spongy encephalitus
 Sanitary-Hygienic Characteristics of Milk and Dairy Products
• Milk is the most valuable foodstuff with high nutrition value. It is an ideal food for infants and children. The milk
proteins contain casein, lactatalbumin and lactoglobulin; milk fat is easily digestible. Carbohydrates are present in milk
as lactose. Milk contains vitamins, but vitamin С is present only in very small quantities.
• Milk Products
• Vegetable milk is produced from certain vegetable foods (soyabean, groundnut). It may be used as a substitute for
animal milk.
• Cheese — proteins 12-16%, calcium — 8OO mg, phosphorus — 400 mg, fats — 25%. Sour cream — fats up to 36%.
• Curds (cottage cheese) — fats — 9-20%, proteins -12-16%.
• Kefir is slightly alcoholic and acidic, produced by fermentation of milk with yeasts and lactobacilli.
• Curd. Fresh curd must be white or creamy without sour smell. Fats — 9-18%, water — 65-80 %, acidity — 20-27° Тerner.
• Milk-Borne Diseases (FAO/WHO)
• These can be divided into:
• Animal infections that can be transmitted to man including those of:
– primary importance, i.e. tuberculosis, brucellosis, streptococcal infections, staphylo- coccal poisoning,
salmonellosis, Q fever
– lesser importance, i.e. cowpox, foot and mouth diseases, anthrax, leptospirosis, tick- borne encephalitis.
• Infections primary to man that can be transmitted through milk, such as typhoid and pa- ratyphoid fevers, shigellosis,
cholera, enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC), non- diarrheal diseases including streptococcal infections,
staphylococcal food poisoning, diphtheria, tuberculosis, enteroviruses, viral hepatitis.
 Sanitary-Hygienic Expertise of Milk
• Evaluation of Organoleptic Properties of Milk
• Colour of milk is evaluated in a cylinder made of colourless glass, which contains 50- 60 ml
of milk.
• Normal colour of milk is white with a yellowish shade.
• Skim milk has a bluish shade.
• Diluted with water milk has a bluish shade.
• Impurity of blood in milk (cow¢s diseases) is of pinkish shade.
• If an animal eats some plants, shade of its milk may be: orange, yellow — at eating
carrots, pinkish — at eating beet, etc.
• Consistence of milk is determined by a trace remained on walls of a flask after its
churning.
• Normal consistence has a white trace
• Watery consistence of milk (milk diluted with water) has no white trace.
• Mucous or viscous consistence of milk (in case of development of bacteria in milk) leaves
a dragging trace on walls.
 Sanitary-Hygienic Expertise of Milk

• Smell. For evaluation of smell 100 ml of milk are poured in a conic flask. Milk
is shaken and after that smell is evaluated.
• Fresh milk has a milk specific smell.
• Sour milk has a specific acidic smell.
• Putrefactive microorganisms of milk add the smell of ammonia, hydrogen
sulfide, etc., to it.
• If milk is improperly stored or transported, it can acquire different smells,
e.g. of petro- leum, soap, fish, perfume, etc.
• Taste. For evaluation of taste an oral cavity is rinsed by a small amount of
milk (5-10 ml).
• Good-quality milk has a slightly sweet taste.
• Diluted with water milk or skim milk has a watery taste.
• Other tastes (bitter, salty, styptic, fishy) are caused by a forage animal, its
illness, extraneous impurities, incorrect taking and storage of milk.