Electricity

Topics
Fundamental of Electricity
Electric Charge
 The Atom

An atom is a fundamental unit of matter

made up of

- protons (with positive charge)

- neutrons (neutral - no charge)
- electrons (with negative charge)

Nucleus = proton + neutron

There are two kind of electric charge, namely the positive charge and the
negative charge.

Like charge repel each other.

Unlike charge attract each other.

A neutral body can be attracted by another body which has either positive
or negative charge.
A neutral body can be attracted by another body
which has either positive or negative charge.
SI unit of electric charge is Coulomb (C).

Example
Charge of 1 electron = -1.6 x 10-19C
Charge of 1 proton = +1.6 x 10-19C
 Charge and Relative Charge

RELATIVE
PARTICLE CHARGE
CHARGE

ELECTRON -1 -1.6 x 10-19C

PROTON +1 +1.6 x 10-19C

ALUMINIUM ION +3 3 x +1.6 x 10-19C

OXYGEN ION -2 2 x -1.6 x 10-19C

 Electric Charge

Electric Charge is given the symbol

Q
Electrons are the charge carriers that flow in an electrical
circuit - from the negative to positive terminals.
 Sum of Charge

Sum of charge
= number of charge particles × charge of 1 particle

Q = ne
Example:

Find the charge of 2.5 x 10 electrons.

19

(Charge of 1 electron is -1.6 x 10 C)

-19

Answer:
Number of electrons, n = 2.5 x 1019
Charge of 1 electron, e = -1.6 x 10-19C

Q = ne
Q = (2.5×1019) (−1.6×10−19)
Q = −4C
Fundamental of Electricity

Electric Current
 What is electricity?

Everything is made of atoms which contain POSITIVE particles called

PROTONS and NEGATIVE particles called ELECTRONS.

An atom will usually have the same number of positive and negatives
particles.

This makes the atom neutral.

 What is electricity?

In some materials, particularly metals, the electrons farthest

from the nucleus are not bound to a particular atom - they can
move freely from one atom to another.

Electricity is the flow of these free electrons in a wire.

 Electric Current

Good conductors allow

electrons to move through
them easily.

Insulators do not allow

electrons to move easily.
 Electric Current

Electric Current consists of a flow of electrons.

The more charges that flow through a cross section within

a given time, the larger the current.
Electrons have a negative charge (Q) measured in
Coulombs (C).

Electrons move round a circuit from negative to

positive (remember like charges repel, opposite
attract), giving rise to an electric current.
 So electricity is:

movement of electrons of flow of charge round a circuit.

We call this electric current.

 Charge, Current & Time

Electric Current is given the symbol

I
Electric current is a flow of negative charges (electrons) in
a conductor.
Current Direction

Conventionally, the
direction of the electric
current is taken to be
the flow of positive
charge.

The electron flow is in

opposite direction to
that of the
conventional current.
 Charge, Current & Time

Electric Current is the rate of flow of charges OR the

amount of charge flowing per second and is given the
unit:

Amps (A)
 Electric Current

Unit for Electric Current is Ampere (A)

I=Q/t
I = current
Q = Quantity of charges (Coulombs)
t = time (second)

1 Ampere is 1 Coulomb of electric charge, C in 1 second.

Current is the measure of how fast the charge flow through a cross
section of a conductor.
Example 1:

If 30 C of electric charge flows past a point in a wire in 2 minutes, what is

the current in the wire?

Answer:
Charge flow, Q = 30C
Time taken, t = 2 minutes = 120s

Current,
I = Q/t
I = 30/120
I = 0.25A
Example 2:
Current of 0.5A flowed through a bulb. How many electrons had flowed
through the bulb in 5 minute? (The charge of 1 electron is equal to -1.6×10 -19
C)

Answer:
Current, I = 0.5A
Time taken, t = 5 minutes = 300s
I = Q/t
Q = It
Q = (0.5)(300) = 150C

Charge of 1 electron, e = -1.6×10-19 C

Number of electrons, n = ?

Q = ne
n = Q/e
n = 150/1.6×10−19 = 9.375×1020
Example 4
Given that the potential difference across a bulb is 240V and the current that
flow through the bulb is 0.25A. Find the energy dissipated in the bulb in
30s.

Answer:
Formula of current,
I=Q/t
hence
Q = It

Energy dissipated,
E = QV
E = (It)V
E = (0.25)(30)(240)
E = 1800J
Fundamental of Electricity

Electric Field
An electric field is a region in which an electric charged particle experiences
an electric force.

Electric field is represented by a number of lines with arrows, called electric

lines of force or electric field lines.

The direction of the field at a point is defined by the direction of the electric
force exerted on a positive test charge placed at that point.
The direction of the field at a point is defined by the direction of the
electric force exerted on a positive test charge placed at that point.

+ F
Electric Field Pattern
The strength of the electric field is indicated by how close the field lines
are to each other.

The closer the field lines, the stronger the electric field in that region.
The lines of force are directed outwards for a positive charge and
inwards for a negative charge.

The electric line of force will never cross each other.

 Activity to observe the pattern of electric fields

When the power supply is turned on, the talcum powder will map the electrical
field lines
• Sesame oil is used because it conducts electricity only at extremely high
potential difference
• The density of the field lines represent the intensity of the electric field
Candle in the electric field

Heat energy from the candle flame

produces ionization of air molecules
to form positive and negative ions.

Movement of positive ions which are

heavier towards the negative plate
causes a bigger spread of the flame.

Negative ions which are lighter move

towards the positive plate and causing
a smaller spread of the flame.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a7_8Gc_Llr8
Effect Of Electric Field On A Ping Pong Ball Coated With
Conducting Material
 A ping ball coated with conducting material is hung by a nylon thread.
When the ping pong ball is placed in between 2 plates connected to a Extra High Tension (E.H.T.) power supply, opposite
charges are induced on the surface of the ball. The ball will still remain stationary. This is because the force exert on the ball
by the positive plate is equal to the force exerted on it by the negative plate.

If the ping pong ball is displaced to the right to touch the positive plate, it will then be charged with positive charge. Since
like charges repel, the ball will be pushed towards the negative plate.
When the ping pong ball touches the negative plate, it will be charged with negative charge. Again, like charge repel, the ball
will be pushed towards the positive plate.

This process repeats again and again, causes the ping pong ball oscillates to and fro continuously between the two plates.
 Lightning formation

During cloud formation, the friction of movement creates a lot of excess charge.
This induced positive charges on the objects below it.

If the forces of attraction are strong enough, the negative charges in the clouds
will be attracted towards the positive charges of the objects, resulting in
lightning.
Photocopiers
Fundamental of Electricity

Potential And Potential Difference

The electric potential V at a point in an electric field is the work done to
bring a unit (1 Coulomb) positive charge from infinity to the point.

The potential difference (p.d.) between two points is defined as the work
done in moving 1 Coulomb of positive charge from 1 point in an electric
field to another point.

Potential Difference =Work Done / Amount of Charge Flow

Consider the task of moving a charge within a uniform electric field
from location A to location B.

In moving the charge against the electric field from location A to

location B, work will have to be done on the charge by an external
force.

The work done on the charge changes its potential energy to a higher
value; and the amount of work that is done is equal to the change in
the potential energy.

As a result of this change in potential energy, there is also a

difference in electric potential between locations A and B.

This difference in electric potential is formally referred to as the

electric potential difference.
Charges move from high potential to low potential
 10J

2C B

A The potential difference between A and B

is 5V

Example: if the work done to move a charge of 2C from

point A to point is 10J, the potential difference between A
and B,

VAB = 10J / 2C = 5J / C = 5V
Example:
During an occasion of lightning, 200C of
charge was transferred from the cloud to the
surface of the earth and 1.25×1010J of energy
was produced. Find the potential difference
between the cloud and the surface of the earth.

Answer:
Work done, W = 1.25×1010J
Charge transferred, Q = 200C
Potential difference, V = ?

V = W/Q
V = 1.25×1010 / 200
V = 6.25×107V
Arrangement of Ammeter & Voltmeter
 Arrangement of Ammeter

To use the ammeter in the measurement of an electric current, the ammeter

must be connected in series to the circuit.
 Arrangement of Voltmeter

To use the voltmeter in the measurement of potential

difference across an object, the voltmeter must be connected
in parallel to the circuit.
Ohm's Law - Relationship Between
Current And Potential Difference
 Relationship Between Current and Potential Difference
Ohm’s Law

The relationship between the current passing through 2 points in a

conductor and the potential difference between the 2 points is given by
Ohm's law.

Ohm’s Law states that the current flowing in the metallic conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference applied across it’s
ends, provided that the physical conditions ( such as temperature )
are constant.

IαV
or

V = kI
where k is a constant
Ohm’s Law
Example:
What is the current flow through an 800Ω
toaster when it is operating on 240V?

Answer:
Resistance, R = 800Ω
Potential difference, V = 240V
Current, I = ?

R=V/I
I=V/R
I = 240 / 800
I = 0.3A
Resistance
Resistance

The resistance R of a material is defined

as the ratio V : I, where V is the potential
difference across the material and I is the
current flowing in it.

V / I = Resistance (R)
The SI unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω).
One ohm is the resistance of a material
through which a current of one ampere
flows when a potential difference of one
volt is maintained.
 Finding Resistance from the Potential Difference - Current
Graph

In the graph potential difference against current, the gradient of the graph
is equal to the resistance of the resistor.

Resistance, R = Gradient of the Graph

 Potential Difference (V)

15

Current (I)
0 3

Example: Figure above shows the graph of potential difference across a wire
against its current. Find the resistance of the wire.

Answer:
Resistance
R=V/I
R = Gradient of the graph
R = 15 / 3
R = 5Ω
 Ohmic Conductor

Conductors that obey Ohm’s law are said to be ohmic conductor.

Resistance is constant for wide range of voltages and currents.

Examples of Ohmic conductor: Metal, Copper sulphate solution with copper

electrodes
 Non-Ohmic Conductor

Conductors which do not obey Ohm’s law are called non-ohmic conductor.

When a plot of Potential Difference against Current is drawn, it is not a straight line.

Example: Semiconductor Diode, Vacuum tube diode

Factors Affecting Resistance
 Factors Affecting the Resistance

The resistance R of a given conductor depends on:

1. its length, l,
2. its cross-sectional area, A
3. its temperature
4. the type of material (resistivity)
 Resistivity Table

Different material will have different resistivity.

Rubber has higher resistivity than Copper.
Silver has lowest resistivity.
Factors that affect resistance - in Graph
Factors that affect resistance - in Graph
Summary: Factors that affect Resistance
 Since resistance is directly proportional to the length and inversely
proportional to the cross sectional area of the conductor.

If two resistors of same material have same temperature, we can relate the
resistance of the two resistors by the following equation.

R 1 A1 / l 1 = R 2 A2 / l 2
Superconductors
 Resistance vs Temperature

The resistance of a metal increases with temperature

The resistance of a semiconductor decreases with temperature.

 Advantages

A superconductor is a material whose resistance becomes zero when its

temperature drops to a certain value called the critical temperature.

This enables superconductors to maintain a current with no applied voltage at

that temperature.
• Able to sustain large currents
• Smaller power loss during transmission
• Less heat energy is wasted
• Small-sized motors and generators can be used.
 Superconductors

Superconductors are conductors with zero resistance

• Superconductors conduct electricity with no loss of energy

• The conductors are cooled down to critical temperatures

• Special properties:
• Allows the flow of electric current with minimal loss of energy
• Negates any applied external magnetic fields
 Superconductor is one of the most fascinating features in physics. This
concept allows a bullet train to float a few milimetre on its rail, causes less
friction to make it moves at 'super' speed.

To understand superconductor, you must understand the word conductor itself.

Conductor is like a wire which can conduct electricity. Usually a wire has
resistance. Resistance comes from the word, 'resist'..i.e it resists the flow of
electrons or current. Different wires has different resistance. But bear in mind,
not all conductors are wires.

So..how about superconductors??

Under low temperature, the resistance of a conductor decreases. But under

extremely low temperature, some conductors has almost NO resistance...i.e it
has ZERO resistance. If this condition is achieved, the conductor now has
transformed itself into SUPERCONDUCTOR.
• Superconductors are used in transportation, electronic components, energy
storage, power cables, etc.
 MRI scanner

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is to determine what is going on

inside the human body. By exposing the body to a strong
superconductor-derived magnetic field, hydrogen atoms that exist in
the body’s water and fat molecules are forced to accept energy from
the magnetic field. They then release this energy at a frequency that
can be detected and displayed graphically by a computer.
 Electrical power line

Electric cable made of superconductors will increase the efficiency

of electrical power transmission as the loss of energy in the form of
heat is greatly reduced.
 Circuit

Series and Parallel Circuit

The resistors connected in one non-branched wire is said to be connected in
series, whereas resistors connected in a branched wire is said to be
connected in parallel.
 Series Circuit

A circuit that contains only one path for current to flow

If the path is open anywhere in the circuit, current stop flowing to all
components.
Example of Series Circuit
 Parallel Circuit

A circuit that contains more than one path for current to flow

If a component is removed, then it is possible for the current to take

another path to reach other components.
 Parallel Circuit

A Parallel circuit is one with several different paths for the electricity to travel.
It's like a river that has been divided up into smaller streams, however, all the
streams come back to the same point to form the river once again.

The parallel circuit has very different characteristics than a series circuit. For
one, the total resistance of a Parallel Circuit is NOT equal to the sum of the
resistors (like in a series circuit).

The total resistance in a parallel circuit is always less than any of the branch
resistances. Adding more parallel resistances to the paths causes the total
resistance in the circuit to decrease.

As you add more and more branches to the circuit the total current will
increase because Ohm's Law states that the lower the resistance, the higher the
current.
 Parallel Circuit

Wheatstone bridge

The six resistive networks above may look different to each other, but they
are all arranged as Resistors in Parallel and as such the same conditions
and equations apply.
Parallel Circuit
Effective Resistance
 Effective Resistance Of Resistors in Series

If individual resistors are connected from end to end, the resistors are said to be
connected in series.

In general, if there are n resistors in series, the effective resistance R is given

by:

R = R1 + R2 +….+ Rn
Note: In a series connection, the effective resistance, R, is always larger than
the largest of the individual resistances.
 Effective Resistance Of Resistors in Parallel

If each end of individual resistors are connected together to one another as one,
the resistors are said to be connected in parallel.

In general, if there are n resistors in parallel, the effective resistance R is given

by:

Note: In a parallel connection, the effective resistance, R, is always smaller

than the smallest of the individual resistances.
 Effective Resistance Of Resistors

In a series circuit, the more resistors with equal resistance in the circuit,
the higher the effective resistance of the circuit.

In a parallel circuit, the more resistors with equal resistance in the circuit,
the lower the effective resistance of the circuit.
Find the equivalent resistance of the connection shown in the
diagram above.
Summary: Series vs Parallel Circuits
 Example how to determine
effective resistance of a
parallel circuit:

When resistors are connected in parallel, the total resistance becomes smaller
compare to series circuit.

Thus, a higher current will flow to the smaller effective resistance and produce
a brighter bulb in parallel circuit.
Calculate the effective resistance
 Advantages of using parallel circuit:

If one of the electrical appliance does not function, the other electrical
appliances still can be used.

Additional electrical appliances can be connected in parallel with the

existing appliance without the need for more voltage.

In a series circuit, lights will become dimmer if too many lights are
added.
 Why lighting circuit should be connected in parallel?

Reasons being:

When one bulb is spoilt or switched off, the rest of the bulbs can still
function normally at normal brightness. This is because the potential
difference across each bulb in the branches remains the same.

If the lighting circuit is connected in series, when one bulb is spoilt or

switched off, it will be an open circuit and no current can flow
through the circuit. Hence all the bulbs cannot function.
Combination circuits contain both series and parallel arrangements.

What would happen if you removed light 1? light 2? light 3?

Problem Solving of Series and Parallel Circuit

Ohm's law states that the current flowing,

I through a metal conductor is directly
proportional the potential difference, V
across the conductor if the temperature
remain constant.

By using Ohm's law equation V = I R,

we can solve calculation questions in
series and parallel circuit.
The reciprocal of the combined resistance of resistors in parallel is the sum of the
reciprocals of all the individual resistances.

Note that:
1.for two identical resistors in parallel, the combined resistance is equal to half of the
value of each one,
2.for n identical resistors in parallel, the combined resistance is equal to the value of
each one divided by n
3.for resistors in parallel, the combined resistance is always less than the value of the
smallest individual resistance.
4.for two resistors in parallel, there is an easier formula:
Calculate the effective resistance
Application of both the Series and Parallel Circuit

Hair Dryer

Fan and resistor are connected in series.

Fan and heating element are connected in parallel.
 Hair Dryer

When the main switch is closed, the fan is switched on and air blown out
from the hairdryer is cold. Switch A is used to control the heating element.
When it is closed, the heating element is turned on and air blown out is hot.

The speed of the fan can be controlled by connecting a resistor, R in series

with the fan. The speed of the fan is in slow mode when the main switch is
closed.

When switch B is closed, the current bypasses resistor R and flows straight to
the fan. This will increase the voltage across the fan and the speed of the fan
can be increased.
Electromotive Force
 Electromotive Force

where
E = e.m.f.,
W = energy converted from non-electrical forms to electrical form
Q = positive charge.

The unit of e.m.f. is JC-1 or V (Volt)

Electromotive force of 1 Volt means that 1 Joule of electrical energy is supplied to the circuit to
move 1 Coulomb of charge across the whole circuit.
Difference Between Electromotive Force And Potential
Difference
Electromotive force and Potential Difference
 The emf = 10V means:
10J of chemical energy converted into electrical energy, and
the energy supplied to the circuit to bring 1C of charge across
the whole circuit.

Chemical Energy -> Electrical Energy

Electrical Energy -> Heat Energy Electrical Energy -> Heat Energy

The PD = 2.5V means: The PD = 7.5V means:

Work is done to convert 2.5J of electrical Work is done to convert 7.5J of electrical
energy into heat to move 1C of charge across energy into heat to move 1C of charge across
the resistor. 25% of the energy supplied by the the resistor. 75% of the energy supplied by the
cell is used to move the charge across this cell is used to move the charge across this
resistor. resistor.
 Cell has electromotive force (e.m.f) E and
internal resistance r. It is connected with a
variable resistor R.

(a) Define electromotive force (e.m.f)

(b) Variable resistor R has resistance X. Show that:

Power dissipated in resistor R / power produced in cell = X / X+R
 What does the label 1.5 V on the battery mean?

The voltage label on a battery or cell indicates its e.m.f

The label 1.5 V on a dry cell indicates the e.m.f. of the cell is 1.5 V.

A cell has an e.m.f. of 1.5 V if a flow of 1 C of charge produces 1.5 J of

electrical energy to the whole circuit.
Compare e.m.f. and potential difference
Compare e.m.f. and potential difference
To distinguish between e.m.f. and potential difference
Why there is drop in potential difference?
Internal Resistance
 Internal Resistance

Before the switch is turned on

• The battery does not supply current to the light bulb
• Voltmeter reading = E.m.f. of battery

After the switch is turned on

• The battery supplies current which flows around the circuit
• Voltmeter measures the potential difference across the terminals of the battery
• The voltmeter reading drops due to internal resistance of the battery
 without internal resistance, with internal resistance,
emf = V emf > V

If the internal resistance is ignored, the terminal potential difference is equal to

the e.m.f.

If the internal resistance is present, the terminal potential difference will be

lower than the e.m.f.
 Explain Internal Resistance, r

The internal resistance, r of a source or battery is the resistance against the

moving charge due to the electrolyte in the source or cell.

Work is needed to drive a charge against the internal resistance.

This causes a drop in potential difference across the cell as the charge flows
through it and loss of heat energy in the cell.
Example 1:
A cell has internal resistance 0.5Ω and the potential difference across the cell is
4V when a 2A current flows through it. Find the e.m.f. of the cell.

Answer:
r = 0.5Ω
V = 4V
I = 2A
E=?

E = V + Ir
E = (4) + (2)(0.5)
E = 5V
Example 2:
A cell with e.m.f. 3V and internal resistance, 1Ω is connected to a 5Ω resistor,
and a voltmeter is connected across the resistor. Find the reading of the
voltmeter.

Answer:
E = 3V
r = 1Ω
R = 5Ω
V=?
E = I(R+r)
(3) = I(5+1)
I = 3/6 = 0.5A

V = I/R
V = (0.5)(5) = 2.5V
Internal Resistance
The internal resistance of a source (cell or generator) is the resistance against
the moving charge in the source.

Load Resistance
The load resistance in a circuit is the effective resistance against the moving
charge outside the source of electric.

Terminal Potential Difference

Terminal potential difference or terminal voltage is the potential difference
across the two terminal (the positive terminal and the negative terminal) of an
electric source (cell or generator).
Measuring e.m.f. and Internal Resistance
 Answer:
When the switch is off, the reading of the
voltmeter shows the e.m.f. of the batteries.
Therefore.
e.m.f. = 5.0V

When the switch in turned on, the reading of the

voltmeter shows the potential difference of the
resistor. Therefore,
V = 4.5V
The diagram above shows a
simple circuit that connect The current that pass through the resistor,
some batteries to a resistor. The I = V/R = 4.5/9 = 0.5A
voltmeter shows a reading of
5.0V when the switch is off E = V + Ir
and 4.5V when the switch is
5.0 = (4.5) +(0.5)r
on. What are the e.m.f. and the
0.5r = 5.0−4.5 = 0.5
internal resistance of the cell?
r = 0.5 / 0.5 = 1Ω
 Potential Difference (V)

3.0

2.5

Diagram (a) 0 t Current (I)

Diagram (b)

A cell is connected to a circuit as shown in diagram (a). The graph in diagram (b)
shows the change of the reading of the voltmeter, V against time, t. If t is the time
where the switch is close, find

(a) the e.m.f. of the cell

(b) the internal resistance of the cell.
Answer:
(a) Before the switch turned on, the reading of the ammeter shows the e.m.f.
of the cells.

From the graph, the e.m.f. = 3.0V

(b)
e.m.f., E = 3.0V
Potential difference across the resistor, V = 2.5V

Current that pass through the resistor,

I = V/R = 2.5/2 = 1.25A

E = V + Ir
(3.0) = (2.5) + (1.25)r
1.25r = 3.0 − 2.5 = 0.5
r = 0.5/1.25 = 0.4Ω
Example 1
When a 1Ω resistor is connected to the terminal of a cell, the current that flow
through it is 8A. When the resistor is replaced by another resistor with resistance
4Ω, the current becomes 2⅔A. Find the
a. internal resistance of the cell
b. e.m.f. of the cell

Answer:
Experiment 1
R1 = 1Ω
I1 = 8A
E = IR + Ir, E = (8)(1) + (8)r, E − 8r = 8

Experiment 2
R2 = 4Ω
I2 = 2⅔A
E = IR + Ir, E = (2 2/3)(4) + (2 2/3)r, 3E − 8r = 32

Solve the simultaneous equation

E = 12V, r = 0.5Ω
Example 2
The terminal potential difference of a batteries is 1.2V when a 4 Ω resistor is
connected to it. The terminal potential become 1.45V when the resistor is replaced
by another resistor of resistance 29Ω

Find the
a. internal resistance, r
b. e.m.f. of the batteries.
Answer:
Experiment 1
V1 = 1.2V
R1 = 4Ω
I = V/R
I = 1.2/4 = 0.3A

E = V+Ir, E = 1.2+0.3r, E−0.3r = 1.2

Experiment 2
V2 = 1.45V
R2 = 29Ω
I = V/R
I = 1.45/29 = 0.05A

E = V+Ir, E = 1.45 + 0.05r, E − 0.05r = 1.45

Solve the simultaneous equation

E = 1.5V, r = 1Ω
Potential Difference (V)

Current (I)
0
 Potential Difference (V)

Current (I)
0 6
The graph shows the variation of potential difference with current of a
battery. What is the internal resistance and e.m.f. of the battery?

Answer:
e.m.f. = y-intercept = 3V

internal resistance,
r = -gradient of the graph
r = −(−3)/6 = 0.5Ω
Battery in Parallel
When there are two cells connected in parallel, the value of emf in the two cells
remain the same as the emf of a single cell.
This is because the two cells are sharing terminals.

Therefore the potential difference remain the same as the potential difference of
a single cell.

The brightness of the bulb increases when there are two cells connected in
parallel because the current flow through the bulb is larger due to the small
effective internal resistance of the cells connected in parallel.

Cells connected in parallel can last longer as more energy can be stored in the
cells.
Electric Energy and Power
 Electric Power

where P = power [Watt]

E = electric energy used / dissipated [Joule]
t = time [seconds]
The electric power, P is defined as the rates of energy
that supply to the circuit ( or the rates of work been
done ) by sources of electric.

The unit of electric power is the watt (W).

One watt of power equals the work done in one second

by one volt of potential difference in moving one
coulomb of charge.
The electrical power of an electric circuit component can be
find from the following equations:
 Example 1:
A current of 0.50A flows through a 100Ω resistor.
What is the power lost in the resistor?

Answer:
P = I 2R
P = (0.5)2(100)
P = 25W
 Example 2
An electric iron has a heating element of resistance 50Ω. If the operating
current flowing through it is 4A, calculate the heat energy produced in 2
minutes.

Answer:
Power of the iron,
P = I 2R
P = (4)2(50)
P = 800W

Heat energy produced,

E = Pt
E = (800)(120)
E = 96000J
Example 3
• What is the power dissipated in a 4Ω light bulb connected to a 12V
battery?
• What is the power dissipated in a 2Ω light bulb connected to the same
battery?
• Which bulb is brighter?
 An ideal battery with e.m.f. 12 V is connected in series to two bulbs with
resistances R1 = 4Ω and R2 = 2Ω What is the current in the circuit and the
power dissipation in each bulb?
Answer:
Potential difference across the 2 resistors, V = 12V
Equivalence resistance of the 2 resistors, R = 4 + 2 = 6Ω

Current in the circuit,

I = V/R
I = 12/6 = 2A

Power dissipated in R1
P = I 2R
P = (2)2(4) = 16W

Power dissipated in R2
P = I 2R
P = (2)2(2) = 8W

[Conclusion: In a series connection, the greater the resistance of a resistor, the

greater the power dissipated]
The figure above shows that an ideal battery is connected in parallel to two
resistors with resistances 2Ω and 4Ω. Find the power dissipated in
a. the 4Ω resistor
b. the 2Ω resistor
Answer:
a. The potential difference across the 2 resistor = 12V

The power of the 2Ω resistor,

P = V2 / R
P = (12)2 / (4) = 36W

b.
The power of the 4Ω resistor,
P = V2 / R
P = (12)2 / (2) = 72W

[Conclusion: In a parallel connection, the lower the resistance, the greater the
power of the resistor.]
When the switch is on, heat is dissipated from each of the four resistors.
Which of the resistors A, B, C or D, dissipates the most heat per second?
 In a circuit of any connection (series or parallel), the power dissipated
in the whole circuit is equal to the sum of the power dissipated in each
of the individual resistor.

Example 1:

2 identical bulb of resistance 3Ω is connected to an e.m.f. of 12V. Find the

power dissipated in the circuit if

a. the bulb is connected in series

b. if the bulb is connected in parallel
a. Current pass through the 2 resistors,
I = VR = (12)6 =2A

Power of each of the resistor,

P = I 2R
P = (2)2(3) = 12W

Sum of the power,

P = P1 + P2
P = (12W) + (12W) = 24W

b. Potential difference across the 2 resistor = 12V

Power of each of the resistor,
P =V2/R
P = (12)2(3) = 48W
Sum of the power,
P = P1+ P2
P = (48W) + (48W) = 96W
Example 2:

A 800W heater is used to heat 250 cm³ of water from 30 to 100°C. What is
the minimum time in which this can be done?
[Density of water = 1000kg/m³; Specific Heat Capacity of water = 4200J°C-1
kg-1]

Answer:
Energy supply by the heater, E = Pt

Heat energy absorbed by the water, E = mcθ

Let's assume that all the energy supplied by the heater is converted to heat
energy and absorbed by the water, hence
Pt = mcθ
(800)t = (0.25)(4200)(70)
t = (0.25)(4200)(70)(800) = 92s
Power Rating
• Electrical appliances are usually labeled by its voltage and power rating

• Voltage – required potential difference to operate the appliance

Power rating – energy dissipated by the appliance when the correct voltage is
supplied
Power Rating
Power Rating
 Power Rating of Appliances

A light bulb labeled 12 V, 36 W:

1. When connected to a 12 V voltage source, the light bulb will shine with
normal intensity. Power dissipated is 36 W

2. When connected to a voltage less than 12 V, the light bulb will shine with
less intensity and power is less than 36 W

3. When connected to a voltage more than 12 V, the light bulb will shine with
brighter intensity and power is more than 36 W. Life span of the light bulb will
be shortened and the light bulb is burned out
Example

A bulb rated 240V/80W is operated from a

120V power source. Find the resistance and
the current flows through it.

Answer:
P = V2/R
80 = (240)2/R
R = (240)2/80
R = 720Ω

The current flows through the bulb

I = V/R
I = 120/720
I = 0.167A
Calculating the cost of electricity consumption

The amount of electrical energy consumed in a given time:

The larger the power rating in the electrical appliance, the higher energy is used
for every second.

The longer the usage time, the higher electrical energy is consumed.
The cost of electricity consumption is based on the number of kilowatt-hours
(kWh) of electrical energy used.

The kilowatt-hours are sometimes known as the domestic units of electricity.

The kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the energy used by a device at a rate of 1000 watts in
one hour.
1 kWh = (1000 W) × (60 × 60 s) = 3.6 MJ
Example:
If TNB charges 22 cents for each kWh of electrical energy used, calculate the
total cost of using a 2kW electric kettle for 15 minutes and a 20 W filament bulb
for 8 hours.

Answer:
Electrical energy consumed by the kettle,
E1 = P1t1
E1 = (2kW)(15/60h) = 0.5kWh

Electrical energy consumed by the bulb,

E2 = P2t2
E2 = (0.02kW)(8h) = 0.16kWh

Total energy consumed,

E = E1+E2
E = 0.5+0.16 = 0.66kWh

Cost = 0.66×22cent = 14.52cent

Cost of using Electricity
 Efficiency

The efficiency of an electrical appliance is given by the following

equation:

Normally, the efficiency of an electrical appliance is less than 100% due

to the energy lost as heat and the work done against friction in a
machine.
Example 1
A lamp is marked “240V, 50W”. If it produces a light
output of 40W, what is the efficiency of the lamp?

Answer:
Efficiency = POutput / Pinput × 100%

Efficiency = 40/50 × 100% = 80%

Example 2
An electric motor raises a mass of 2kg to a height of 5m in 10s. If the input
current from a source of 12V is 2A, find the efficiency of the electric motor.

Answer:
Input power,
P = IV
P = (2)(12)
P = 24W

Output power
P = Wt
P = mgh / t
P = (2)(10)(5) / 10 = 10W

Efficiency = POutput / Pinput × 100%

Efficiency = 10/24 × 100% = 41.7%
 A fluorescent lamp with power rating of 40 W produces r W of light
energy. Given the efficiency of the lamp is 20%, calculate the value of r.
 Steps to Save Electricity

1. Use efficient lighting - Replace regular incandescent (filament) light

bulbs with compact fluorescent light bulbs.
2. Buy efficient electric appliances.
3. Use appliances with automatic power off function.
4. Choose electrical appliances of sizes and features which best suit your
needs.
5. Proper utilisation of all electrical appliances
• Defrost refrigerators regularly, check the seal on refrigerator doors
and vacuum the grille behind refrigerators.
• Run your washing machine only when it is fully loaded & Iron your
clothes only when you have at least a few pieces to iron.
• Limit excessive usage of air-conditioning and lighting by switching
them off upon leaving the room.
• Regular cleaning of air filters in air-condition units and clothes
dryers.
• Improve ventilation and air flow.
 CFLs uses less energy than
incandescent lamp. Can save up
to 75 energy.
 Micro Fuel Cells - a power source for electronic devices that converts
chemical energy to electrical energy. It’s better, smaller, less costly and much
more efficient. It use methanol, a form of alcohol as fuel.
 What are Fuse?

A fuse is a short piece of thin wire which overheats

and melts if current of more than a certain value
flows through it.

• If a short circuit develops in the appliance, a

current which is too high will flow. The fuse will
melt and prevents overheating of the wire that can
cause a fire.

• If an electrical appliance is rated 960 W and 240 V

then current in normal use is 4.0 A. The fuse suitable
for use must slightly higher than the normal current
flowing through the appliance .ie 5 A fuse.
 Three-pin plug

• Live wire, L (brown). A current flows through the circuit

• Neutral wire, N (blue). It is a zero potential difference.

• Earth wire, E (green). Safety wire which connects the metal body of the
appliance to earth. If a live wire touches the metal body of appliance, a
large current would immediately flow to the earth and breaks the fuse. This
will prevent a person from electrocution.
Formula Summary
Practice Questions
What is the physical quantity represented by the magnitude of the gradient
of the graph?

A Electromotive force of the battery

B Internal resistance of the battery
C External resistance of the battery