Theories of Development

MS. ZASHEER AMAN

Theories of Development

 Following are the major Theories of Development

I. Psychoanalytic Theories
II. Cognitive Theories
III. Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories
IV. Ethological Theory
V. Ecological Theory
VI. An Eclectic Theoretical Orientation
Psychoanalytic Theories
Psychoanalytic Theories

 Psychoanalytic theories describe development as primarily unconscious (beyond

awareness) and heavily colored by emotion. Psychoanalytic theorists emphasize that
behavior is merely a surface characteristic and that a true understanding of development
requires analyzing the symbolic meanings of behavior and the deep inner workings of the
mind.
 Psychoanalytic theorists also stress that early experiences with parents extensively shape
development.
 These characteristics are highlighted in the main psychoanalytic theory, that of Sigmund
Freud
 Freud’s Theory

 Freud’s Theory As Freud listened to, probed, and analyzed his patients, he became convinced that their
problems were the result of experiences early in life. He thought that as children grow up, their focus of
pleasure and sexual impulses shifts from the mouth to the anus and eventually to the genitals.
 As a result, we go through five stages of psychosexual development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and
genital. Our adult personality, Freud (1917) claimed, is determined by the way we resolve conflicts between
sources of pleasure at each stage and the demands of reality.
 Freud’s theory has been significantly revised by a number of psychoanalytic theorists. Many of today’s
psychoanalytic theorists maintain that Freud overemphasized sexual instincts; they place more emphasis on
cultural experiences as determinants of an individual’s development.
 Unconscious thought remains a central theme, but thought plays a greater role than Freud envisioned. Next,
we will outline the ideas of an important revisionist of Freud’s ideas—Erik Erikson.
FREUDIAN STAGES. Because Freud emphasized sexual motivation, his stages of development are
known as psychosexual stages. In his view, if the need for pleasure at any stage is either under-
gratified or over-gratified, an individual may become fixated, or locked in, at that stage of
development.
 Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Erik Erikson (1902–1994) recognized Freud’s contributions but believed that
Freud misjudged some important dimensions of human development
 In Erikson’s theory, eight stages of development unfold as we go through life. At each stage, a unique
developmental task confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved.
 According to Erikson, the more successfully an individual resolves the crises, the healthier development will
be.
 Trust versus mistrust is Erikson’s first psychosocial stage, which is experienced in the first year
of life. Trust in infancy sets the stage for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and
pleasant place to live.
 Autonomy versus shame and doubt is Erikson’s second stage. This stage occurs in late infancy
and toddlerhood (1 to 3 years). After gaining trust in their caregivers, infants begin to discover that
their behavior is their own. They start to assert their sense of independence or autonomy. They
realize their will. If infants and toddlers are restrained too much or punished too harshly, they are
likely to develop a sense of shame and doubt.
 Initiative versus guilt, Erikson’s third stage of development, occurs during the preschool years. As preschool
children encounter a widening social world, they face new challenges that require active, purposeful,
responsible behavior. Feelings of guilt may arise, though, if the child is irresponsible and is made to feel too
anxious.
 Industry versus inferiority is Erikson’s fourth developmental stage, occurring approximately in the
elementary school years. Children now need to direct their energy toward mastering knowledge and intellectual
skills. The negative outcome is that the child may develop a sense of inferiority—feeling incompetent and
unproductive.
 During the adolescent years, individuals face finding out who they are, what they are all about, and where they
are going in life. This is Erikson’s fifth developmental stage, identity versus identity confusion. If adolescents
explore roles in a healthy manner and arrive at a positive path to follow in life, then they achieve a positive
identity; if not, then identity confusion reigns.
 Intimacy versus isolation is Erikson’s sixth developmental stage, which individuals experience during the
early adulthood years. At this time, individuals face the developmental task of forming intimate relationships.
If young adults form healthy friendships and an intimate relationship with another, intimacy will be achieved;
if not, isolation will result.
 Generativity versus stagnation, Erikson’s seventh developmental stage occurs during middle adulthood. By
generativity Erikson means primarily a concern for helping the younger generation to develop and lead useful
lives. The feeling of having done nothing to help the next generation is stagnation.
 Integrity versus despair is Erikson’s eighth and final stage of development, which individuals experience in
late adulthood. During this stage, a person reflects on the past. If the person’s life review reveals a life well
spent, integrity will be achieved; if not, the retrospective glances likely will yield doubt or gloom—the despair
Erikson described.
COGNITIVE THEORIES
 Cognitive theories

 Whereas psychoanalytic theories stress the importance of the unconscious, cognitive theories emphasize
conscious thoughts. Three important cognitive theories are Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory,
Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory, and the information-processing theory.
 Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory
 Piaget’s theory states that children go through four stages of cognitive development as they actively
construct their understanding of the world. Two processes underlie this cognitive construction of the world:
organization and adaptation. To make sense of our world, we organize our experiences (Carpendale, Muller,
& Bibok, 2008).
 For example, we separate important ideas from less important ideas, and we connect one idea to another.
Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development

 The sensorimotor stage, which lasts from birth to about 2 years of age, is the fi rst Piagetian stage. In this stage,
infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing)
with physical, motoric actions—hence the term sensorimotor .

 The preoperational stage, which lasts from approximately 2 to 7 years of age, is Piaget’s second stage. In this
stage, children begin to go beyond simply connecting sensory information with physical action and represent the
world with words, images, and drawings. However, according to Piaget, preschool children still lack the ability to
perform what he calls operations, which are internalized mental actions that allow children to do mentally what
they previously could only do physically.
 The concrete operational stage, which lasts from approximately 7 to 11 years of age, is the third
Piagetian stage. In this stage, children can perform operations that involve objects, and they can
reason logically when the reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples.

 The formal operational stage, which appears between the ages of 11 and 15 and continues through
adulthood, is Piaget’s fourth and fi nal stage. In this stage, individuals move beyond concrete
experiences and think in abstract and more logical terms. As part of thinking more abstractly,
adolescents develop images of ideal circumstances.
 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory

 Like Piaget, the Russian developmentalist Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) argued that children actively construct
their knowledge. However, Vygotsky (1962) gave social interaction and culture far more important roles in
cognitive development than Piaget did. Vygotsky’s theory is a sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes
how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development.
 According to Vygotsky, children’s social interaction with more-skilled adults and peers is indispensable to their
cognitive development (Holzman, 2009). Through this interaction, they learn to use the tools that will help
them adapt and be successful in their culture
BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL
COGNITIVE THEORIES
 Two versions of behaviorism

 Let’s explore two versions of behaviorism:

1. Skinner’s operant conditioning
2. Bandura’s social cognitive theory.
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

 According to B. F. Skinner (1904–1990), through operant conditioning the consequences

of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence. A behavior
followed by a rewarding stimulus is more likely to recur, whereas a behavior followed by
a punishing stimulus is less likely to recur.
 For example, when an adult smiles at a child after the child has done something, the child
is more likely to engage in that behavior again than if the adult gives the child a
disapproving look.
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

 Some psychologists agree with the behaviorists’ notion that development is learned and is
influenced strongly by environmental interactions.
 However, unlike Skinner, they also see cognition as important in understanding
development.
 Social cognitive theory holds that behavior, environment, and cognition are the key
factors in development.
 Bandura’s most recent model of learning and development includes three elements:
behavior, the person/cognition, and the environment.
 An individual’s confidence that he or she can control his or her success is an example of a
person factor; strategies are an example of a cognitive factor
ETHOLOGICAL THEORY
ETHOLOGICAL THEORY

 Ethology stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is
characterized by critical or sensitive periods.
 These are specific time frames during which, according to ethologists, the presence or absence of
certain experiences has a long-lasting influence on individuals.
 Contributions of ethological theory include a focus on the biological and evolutionary basis of
development, and the use of careful observations in naturalistic settings.
 Criticisms include too much emphasis on biological foundations and a belief that the critical and
sensitive period concepts might be too rigid.
ECOLOGICAL THEORY
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory

 While ethological theory stresses biological factors, ecological theory emphasizes

environmental factors.
 One ecological theory that has important implications for understanding life-span
development was created by Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005).
 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory holds that development reflects the influence of
several environmental systems.
 The theory identifies five environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem,
macrosystem, and chronosystem
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory