From Impulse to Action: A Deep Dive into

Synaptic Transmission, Neurotransmitters, and

Neural Control of the Skeletal Muscle
SYNAPTIC
TRANSMISSION
 Synapse
 A synapse is a tiny gap at the end of
a neuron (nerve cell) that allows signals to pass
from one neuron to the next.
Parts of Synapse:
Presynaptic Postsynaptic
Neuron: Synaptic Cleft Neuron
Contains The gap between Holds receptor
neurotransmitters. two nerve cells. sites for
neurotransmitters.
Types of Synapse:
Chemical Synapses:
 Most common.
 Electrical activity in the presynaptic neuron triggers the release of neurotransmitters.
These diffuse across the synapse and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell, either
exciting or inhibiting it.
 the dominant mode of communication between neurons in the nervous system,
responsible for transmitting information through the strategic release of chemicals
called neurotransmitters.
 located at specialized points of contact between neurons. (end of the axon terminal of
the presynaptic neuron and facing the dendrites or cell body of the postsynaptic
neuron)
Electrical Synapses:
Electrical Synapses:
 Neurons connected by specialized channels called gap junctions. Electrical signals zip
quickly from presynaptic to postsynaptic cells, speeding up information transfer.
 two-way communication
 are found in various regions of the nervous system, but they are less common than
chemical synapses:
Central Nervous System (CNS):
• Olfactory bulb (involved in smell)
• Retina (involved in vision)
• Inferior olive (involved in motor coordination)
• Hippocampus (involved in memory)
• Certain regions of the cerebral cortex

 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):

• Neuromuscular junctions (connecting motor neurons to muscle fibers) in some
species, like fish
 Synaptic Transmission:

 Isthe functional process that occurs at the

synapse, enabling communication between
neurons. It involves a series of biochemical
events, including the release of
neurotransmitters, their binding to
receptors, and the generation of a response in
the postsynaptic neuron.
Neurotransmitters:

 are the chemical messengers of the nervous system.

 They play a critical role in transmitting signals between neurons (nerve cells) and
other cells like muscles and glands.
 These chemicals act like bridges, allowing communication to occur throughout
the body, influencing everything from our thoughts and emotions to movement
and organ function.
Kinds of Neurotransmitters:
Neurotransmitter Function Effect on Postsynaptic Neuron
Muscle movement, memory, Excitatory or Inhibitory (depending on
Acetylcholine (ACh) learning receptor type)
Reward, motivation,
Dopamine movement, pleasure Excitatory
GABA (Gamma-
Aminobutyric Acid) Calmness, relaxation Inhibitory
Learning, memory, brain
Glutamate function Excitatory
Mood regulation, sleep, Excitatory or Inhibitory (depending on
Serotonin appetite, learning receptor type)
Norepinephrine Alertness, focus, fight-or-flight
(Noradrenaline) response Excitatory
 How They Work:
1. Synthesis: Neurotransmitters are synthesized within the presynaptic neuron (the sending neuron).
2. Storage: They are then stored in tiny sacs called synaptic vesicles.
3. Release: When an action potential arrives at the presynaptic neuron's terminal, it triggers the release of
neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft (the tiny gap between neurons).
4. Diffusion and Binding: Neurotransmitters diffuse across the cleft and bind to specific receptors on the
postsynaptic neuron (the receiving neuron).
5. Response: Depending on the neurotransmitter and receptor type, the postsynaptic neuron might be
excited (more likely to fire an action potential) or inhibited (less likely to fire an action potential).
6. Termination: After delivering their message, neurotransmitters are either broken down by enzymes or
reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron, preparing the synapse for the next signal.
Neural Control of Skeletal
Muscle
 Skeletal Muscle Neuromuscular Motor Neuron
Contraction: Junction: Specificity:

•Requires •The point of contact •A single motor neuron

stimulation from a between a motor can innervate multiple
somatic motor neuron axon and a muscle cells.
neuron. skeletal muscle cell. •A single muscle cell
•Somatic motor •When an action receives input from
neurons have cell potential travels down only one motor neuron.
bodies in the CNS the motor neuron •All contractions of a
and axons axon, all muscle cells muscle cell are
extending to it innervates (supplies initiated by the same
skeletal muscle nerves to) contract motor neuron.
cells.
  Regulation of LMNs:
 Lower Motor Neurons
 UMN Function:
(LMNs):
• LMNs receive input
• Motor neurons that from other neurons • Initiate voluntary
connect the CNS to within the CNS. movement.
skeletal muscle fibers. • Maintain body posture
• Upper motor neurons
• A functional LMN is and position.
(UMNs) regulate the
essential for muscle • Dysfunction of UMNs can
contraction.
activity of LMNs.
lead to abnormal reflexes
• Dysfunction of an LMN and voluntary movements
leads to flaccid even if LMNs are intact.
paralysis (loss of
movement and muscle
tone).
REFLEXES INVOLVING
SKELETAL
MUSCLE CONTRACTION
A reflex action is an automatic, or unconscious,
response to an appropriate stimulus.
These automatic actions play a vital role in
protecting the body, maintaining posture, and
ensuring proper muscle tone.
 Reflex arc
 is a neural pathway that underlies a reflex.
 It involves sensory neurons that detect a stimulus, interneurons that
process the information in the central nervous system (CNS), and motor
neurons that carry signals to muscles to cause a response.

•Sensory neuron (afferent neuron): Detects a stimulus and transmits a

signal to the CNS.
•Interneuron: Processes information within the CNS and can modify the
reflex response.
•Motor neuron (efferent neuron): Carries a signal from the CNS to a
muscle, causing it to contract.
Two main types of neurons:

•Afferent Neurons (Sensory): These neurons detect the stimulus (e.g.,

touch, stretch) and transmit the information as action potentials to the
CNS.

•Efferent Neurons (Motor): These neurons carry signals away from

the CNS and stimulate muscle contraction in response to the
processed sensory information.

• The simplest reflexes involve a single synapse (connection) between the sensory and motor
neurons within the spinal cord, creating a monosynaptic reflex arc.
Examples of Neural Reflexes:

Several examples of reflexes involving skeletal muscle contraction:

•Patellar Tendon Reflex (Knee Jerk): As discussed earlier, tapping the patellar tendon stretches
the quadriceps muscle, triggering its contraction to extend the knee. This reflex helps maintain
posture and body position.
•Withdrawal Reflex: When a noxious stimulus touches the footpad or toe, sensory neurons
convey the information to the spinal cord, activating motor neurons that cause the limb to
withdraw reflexively, protecting it from further harm.
•Extensor Postural Thrust Reflex: Pushing the foot towards the body (as when supporting
weight) stimulates sensory neurons, prompting the spinal cord to activate motor neurons in the
extensor muscles of the limb. This reflex helps maintain limb extension and support body
weight.
•Corneal Reflex: Touching the cornea of the eye triggers the eyelids to close involuntarily,
protecting the delicate eye surface. This reflex involves a brainstem reflex center.
•Palpebral Reflex: Gently touching or tapping the eyelids also causes them to close reflexively.
This reflex, like the corneal reflex, involves a brainstem reflex center.
Classification of Reflexes:

•Spinal Reflexes: These reflexes have their reflex centers entirely

within the spinal cord.

Examples include the patellar tendon reflex and the withdrawal reflex
(limb withdrawal from a pinch).

•Brainstem Reflexes: These reflexes involve reflex centers located in

the brainstem, a region at the base of the brain.

The vomiting reflex, triggered by various stimuli, is an example.

Voluntary Movement
and
Its Regulation
Studying Voluntary Movement:

•Studying human volunteers with neurological conditions and observing animal

behavior provides insights into voluntary movement mechanisms.

•Similar deficits in humans and animals with comparable lesions suggest similar
underlying mechanisms.

1. Dog Fetching a Ball

•This image depicts a classic example of

voluntary movement in animals. The dog's brain
is actively coordinating its muscles to chase,
grab, and return the ball.
The Motor Cortex and Muscle Control:

•A specific area in the cerebral cortex, the motor

cortex, directly links to motor activity.
•Different regions within the motor cortex control
distinct muscle groups.
•The representation of muscle groups is proportional
to their usage for fine motor control.
•This explains why, for instance, the human motor
cortex has a larger area dedicated to fingers
compared to horses.
Initiation:

•The exact link between initiating a voluntary movement (e.g., reaching for a cup)
and stimulating the required muscles remains unclear.

The Role of Sensory Information:

•Afferent information, especially from proprioceptors (receptors sensing body

position), is crucial for coordinating voluntary movements.
•This information constantly updates the brain about body position, allowing for
smooth and controlled movements.

Person Touching Toes (Proprioception):

•This image showcases proprioception, the sense of body

position and movement. The person closing their eyes
and touching their toes relies on proprioception to guide
their movement.
The Cerebellum: Master of Coordination:

•The cerebellum receives information about

body position and planned movements.
•It integrates this information and sends signals
to various brain regions, including the motor
cortex, to fine-tune ongoing movements.
•While not initiating movements itself, the
cerebellum plays a vital role in their
coordination.
The Basal Nuclei and the Automation of Movement:

•The basal nuclei are believed to play a pivotal role in coordinating and
enabling the automatic execution of learned movement patterns.
Dopamine, a neurotransmitter within the basal nuclei, is crucial for this
function. Parkinson's disease, characterized by the loss of dopaminergic
neurons, manifests as abnormal movements, particularly affecting
complex movement sequences.
The Final Pathway: Upper and Lower Motor Neurons:

All upper motor neurons (UMNs) ultimately influence skeletal muscle activity indirectly by affecting
lower motor neurons (LMNs). LMNs serve as the final common pathway for both voluntary and reflex-
based movements.

Dysfunction in either UMNs or LMNs can lead to abnormal movements, impacting voluntary
movements, reflex movements, or both. By analyzing the characteristics of abnormal movements and
understanding the roles of LMNs, UMNs, and their corresponding brain regions, clinicians can diagnose
the location and type of dysfunctional neurons causing the issue.