CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH

PRINCES MALOU B. BUSTILLO, RCRIM

LECTURER
Research
= is a scientific investigation of phenomena
which includes collection, presentation, analysis and
interpretation of facts that links man’s speculation
with reality.

= is a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical

investigation of hypothetical proposition about the
presumed relations among natural phenomena.
 CRIMINOGICAL RESEARCH
It is a type of social science research
that answers questions about the social
world designed to study the incidence,
forms, causes and consequences of
crime, as well as social and governmental
regulations and reaction to crime.
Scientific method
- Principles and procedures for the
systematic pursuit of knowledge
involving the recognition and
formulation of a problem, the collection
of data through observation and
experiment, and the formulation and
testing of hypotheses.
How can criminological research contribute to
the prevention and intervention strategies for
juvenile delinquency?

a.Understanding Root Causes

b.Evaluating Risk Factors
c.Developing Evidence-based Programs
d.All of the Above
Criminological research plays a pivotal role in shaping prevention and
intervention strategies for juvenile delinquency by offering insights into the
causes, patterns, and trends of youth offending. Here's how it contributes:
1. Understanding Root Causes: Research helps identify the underlying
factors that lead to juvenile delinquency, such as socio-economic
conditions, family dynamics, peer influence, and psychological
issues. By understanding these root causes, strategies can be tailored to
address the specific needs of at-risk youth.
2. Evaluating Risk Factors: It identifies risk factors that increase the
likelihood of youth engaging in delinquent behavior. This includes factors
like substance abuse, truancy, and exposure to violence.
Identifying these risks is crucial for early intervention.
3. Developing Evidence-based Programs: Criminological research is
essential in developing and testing the effectiveness of prevention and
intervention programs. Evidence-based practices that have been
proven to work, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy and family
intervention programs, can be implemented more widely.
It means "wise guess.“

a. Assumption
b. Judgment
c. Thesis
d. Hypothesis
It means "wise guess.“

a. Assumption
b. Judgment
c. Thesis
d. Hypothesis
Assumptions and Hypothesis
Assumption – self-evident truth which is based
upon known fact or phenomenon. It is not usually
answered or proven because it is assumed true or
correct which are beyond the control of the researcher.

Hypothesis – tentative conclusion or answer to

specific question raised at the beginning of the
investigation. It is an educated guess about the
answer to a specific question.
Are conditions or characteristics that the researcher
manipulates, controls or observes.

a. Variables.
b. Paradigm
c. Population
d. Hypotheses
Are conditions or characteristics that the researcher
manipulates, controls or observes.

a. Variables.
b. Paradigm
c. Population
d. Hypotheses
Independent Variable

An independent variable is the variable you

manipulate or vary in an experimental
study to explore its effects. It’s called
“independent” because it is not influenced
by any other variables in the study.
Dependent Variable

A dependent variable is the variable that

changes as a result of the independent
variable manipulation. It is the outcome
you’re interested in measuring, and it
“depends” on your independent variable.
For example:

if you are trying to predict fear of crime using age

(so your research question might ask: are older
people more worried about crime?)

Old age will cause high fear, and young age will
cause low fear. In this case, since age is
influencing fear, a person’s level of fear of
crime depends on their age.
 What is Research?

Research is a systematic process of collecting,

analyzing, and interpreting information (data) in
order to increase the understanding of a
phenomenon about which the community or
organizations are interested or concerned (Leedy
and Ormrod, 2010).
It is a formal and disciplined application of
scientific inquiry to the study of problems.

a. Research
b. Social Science Research
c. Criminological Research
d. Statistical Treatment
It is a formal and disciplined application of
scientific inquiry to the study of problems.

a. Research
b. Social Science Research
c. Criminological Research
d. Statistical Treatment
Nature and Legal Basis of Research
Constitutional Basis of Research
Section 10, Article XIV of 1987 Philippine
Constitution
Science and technology are essential for national
development and progress. The State shall give priority to
research and development, invention, innovation, and their
utilization; and to science and technology education,
training, and services. It shall support indigenous,
appropriate, and self-reliant scientific and technological
capabilities, and their application to the country’s productive
systems and national life.
A research process starts with

a. Identifying the problem

b. Collect data
c. Formulation of hypothesis
d. None of the above
A research process starts with

a. Identifying the problem

b. Collect data
c. Formulation of hypothesis
d. None of the above
 Characteristics of a Research
1.Research originates with a question or problem.

The world is full of unanswered questions and unresolved

problems. These cause a person to wonder, to speculate, to
ask questions. By asking questions, it strikes the first spark
igniting a chain reaction that leads to the research, process.
An inquisitive mind is the beginning of research (Leedy and
Ormrod, 2010).
2. Research requires clear articulation of a
goal.
A clear, unambiguous statement of the
problem is critical. The ultimate goal of the
research must be set forth.. in a grammatically
complete sentence that specifically and
precisely answers the question.
3. Research requires a specific plan for
proceeding.
Research is not a blind excursion into the unknown,
with the hope that the data necessary to answer the
question at hand will somehow fortuitously turn up.
Instead, It is a carefully planned itinerary of the route
researchers intend to take in order to reach his/her
final destination, which is the research goal.
4. Research usually divides the principal
problem into more manageable
subproblems.
It is often helpful to break a main research
problem into several subproblems that, when
solved, will resolve the main problem. By closely
inspecting the principal problem, the researcher
often uncovers important subproblems.
Research Problem Statement Example
Providing context: Since the beginning of the Covid
pandemic, most educational institutions around the world
have transitioned to a fully online study model, at least during
peak times of infections and social distancing measures. This
transition has not been easy and even two years into the
pandemic, problems with online teaching and studying persist
(reference needed). While the increasing gap between those
with access to technology and equipment and those without
access has been determined to be one of the main challenges
(reference needed), others claim that online learning offers
more opportunities for many students by breaking down
barriers of location and distance (reference needed).
Establishing relevance: Since teachers and
students cannot wait for circumstances to go back
to normal, the measures that schools and
universities have implemented during the last two
years, their advantages and disadvantages, and the
impact of those measures on students’ progress,
satisfaction, and well-being need to be understood
so that improvements can be made and
demographics that have been left behind can
receive the support they need as soon as possible.
Defining aims and objectives: To identify what
changes in the learning environment were considered
the most challenging and how those changes relate to a
variety of student outcome measures, we conducted
surveys and interviews among teachers and students at
ten institutions of higher education in four different
major cities, two in the US (New York and Chicago), one
in South Korea (Seoul), and one in the UK (London).
Responses were analyzed with a focus on different
student demographics and how they might have been
affected differently by the current situation.
5. Research is guided by the specific
research problem, question, or hypothesis.
Having stated the problem and its attendant
subproblems, the researcher usually forms one
or more hypotheses about what he or she may
discover. Over time, as particular hypotheses
are supported by a growing body of data, they
evolve into theories.
6. Research accepts certain critical
assumptions.
Assumptions are self-evident truths. It must
be valid or else the research is
meaningless. For this reason, careful
researchers set a statement of their
assumptions as the bedrock upon which
their study must rest.
7. Research requires the collection and
interpretation of data in an attempt to resolve the
problem that initiated the research.
After the researcher has isolated the problem, divided
it into appropriate subproblems, posed reasonable
questions or hypotheses, and identified the
assumptions that are basic to the entire effort, the next
step is to collect whatever data seem appropriate and
to organize them in meaningful ways so that they can
be interpreted.
8. Research is, by its nature, cyclical or, more exactly,
helical'. The research process follows a cycle and begins
simply. It follows logical, developmental steps:
a. A questioning mind observes a particular situation and
asks, Why? What caused that? How come? (This is the
subjective origin of research.)
b. One question becomes formally stated as a problem. (This
is the overt beginning of research.)
c. The problem is divided into several simpler, more specific
subproblems.
d. Preliminary data are gathered that appear to bear on the
problem.
e. The data seem to point to a tentative solution of the
problem. A guess is made; a hypothesis or guiding question
is formed.
f. Data is collected more systematically.
g. The body of data is processed and interpreted.
h. A discovery is made; a conclusion is reached.
i. The tentative hypothesis is either supported by the data or
is not supported; the question is either answered (partially or
completely) or not answered..
j. The cycle is complete.
KINDS AND CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

A.According to Purpose

1. Predictive or Prognostic Research – has the

purpose of determining the future operation
of the variables under investigation with the
aim of controlling or redirecting such for the
better
2. Directive Research –
determines what should be
done based on the findings
this is to remedy an
unsatisfactory condition.
3. Illuminative Research – is concerned with the
interaction of the components of the
variable being investigated, as for example,
“interaction of the components of educational
systems and aims to show the connections
among, for example, students’
characteristics,organizational pattern and
policies, and educational consequences”
This is the kind of research which intends to develop
theory and expand the knowledge base.

a. Pure research
b. Applied research
c. Quantitative research
d. Qualitative research
This is the kind of research which intends to develop
theory and expand the knowledge base.

a. Pure research
b. Applied research
c. Quantitative research
d. Qualitative research
 B. According to Goal

1.Basic or pure Research – is

done for the development of
theories and Principles.
2. Applied Research – is the application of
the results of pure research. This is
testing the efficacy of theories and
principles. aims to test theories and
concepts developed for verification,
application, development and support and
their relationship to the existing fund of
knowledge.
A research which is to develop solutions to problems
and relevant application for criminological practice.

a. Pure research
c. Quantitative
d. Qualitative
b. Applied research
A research which is to develop solutions to problems
and relevant application for criminological practice.

a. Pure research
c. Quantitative
d. Qualitative
b. Applied research
 C. According to the Level of
Investigation
1.Exploratory Research – the
researcher studies the variables
pertinent to a specific situation.
2.Descriptive Research –
the researcher studies the
relationships of the
variables.
3. Experimental Research
– the experiment studies
the effects of the
variables on each other.
 D. According to the Type of
Analysis
1.Analytical Research – the
researcher attempts to identify and
isolate the components of the
research situation.
2. Holistic Research – begins
with the total situation.
Focusing attention on the
system first and then on its
internal relationships.
 E. According to Scope
Action Research. This type of
research is done on a very limited
scope to solve a particular problem
which is not so big. It is almost
problem solving.
F. According to Choice of Answers to
Problems

1.Evaluation Research – all possible

courses of action are specified and
identified and the researcher tries to
find the most advantageous.
 Some of the benefits of evaluation research

• Gain insights about a project or program and its

operations
Evaluation Research lets you understand what works and what
doesn’t, where we were, where we are and where we are headed
towards. You can find out the areas of improvement and identify
strengths.

• Improve practice
It is essential to gauge your past performance and understand what
went wrong in order to deliver better services to your clients.
• Assess the effects
After evaluating the efforts, you can see how well you are
meeting objectives and targets.

• Build capacity
Evaluations help you to analyze the demand pattern and
predict if you will need more funds, upgrade skills and
improve the efficiency of operations.
2. Developmental Research –
the focus is on finding or
developing a more suitable
instrument or process that has
been available
 Characteristics of Developmental
Research
There are many different aspects of life that developmental
researchers are keen to understand more about. Some
topics examined can overlap with other areas studied in
psychology, but the main characteristics of developmental
research include:

• Age-related research - measuring and comparing

neural changes, cognition or memory in children and
adults.
• Gender differences - examining if boys and girls get
• Nature vs nurture effects - exploring if children
behave and develop in certain ways due to innate
instincts or learned behaviours from people in their
environment.
• Social behaviour and attachment types - looking
at how children of different ages and backgrounds
interact with others, often based on the kind of
relationships they have with their caregivers.
• Effects of severe deprivation in infancy - intensive
case studies in developmental research study how
children who have experienced abandonment and
extreme trauma develop.
 G. According to Statistical Content

1.Quantitative or statistical research – is

one in which inferential statistics are
utilized to determine the results of the
study. This type of research usually
includes comparison studies, cause-and-
effect relationships, etc.
2. qualitative research – This is research
in which the use of the quantity or
statistics is practically nil. This is
especially true in anthropological
studies where description is usually
used. Descriptive data are gathered
rather than quantitative data
H. According to Time Element

1. Historical research describes what was.

2. Descriptive research describes what is.

3. Experimental research describes what will

be.
Attributes of Good Research Problem
✓S – Specific. Specifically stated
✓M – Measurable. Easy to measure by using
research instrument in collection of data
✓A – Achievable. Data are achievable using correct
statistical treatment/techniques to arrive at precise
results
✓R – Realistic. Real results are not manipulated
✓T – Time-bound. time frame is required in every
activity because the shorter completion of the activity
the better
 Types of Research
Here are the types of research according to the data or
information collected, interpreted and utilized:
1. Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is the process of collecting and
analyzing numerical data. It encompasses a range of
methods. concerned with the systematic investigation of social
phenomena, using statistical or numerical data. It involves
measurement and assumes that the phenomena under study can
be measured (Roger, 2015).
 The Characteristics of Quantitative research
are :
• It is numerical, non-descriptive, applies statistics or
mathematics and uses numbers.

• It is an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated.

• The results are often presented in tables and graphs.
• It is conclusive.
• It investigates the what, where and when of decision making.
 2. Qualitative Research
Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing
non-numerical data to understand concepts, opinions,
or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth
insights into a problem or generate new ideas for
research (Bhandari, 2020). It focuses on the "why"
rather than the "what" of social phenomena and relies
on the direct experiences of human beings as meaning-
making agents in their everyday lives
The Characteristics of Qualitative research are

• It is non-numerical, descriptive, applies reasoning and uses

words.

• Its aim is to get the meaning, feeling and describe the

situation.

• Qualitative data cannot be graphed.

• It is exploratory.
• It investigates the why and how of decision making.
 3. Mixed Research
Mixed method can help in gaining a more
complete picture than a standalone quantitative
or qualitative study, as it integrates benefits of
both methods. Mixed methods research may be
the right choice if the research process suggests
that quantitative or qualitative data alone will not
sufficiently answer the research question.
Here are several common reasons for using mixed
methods research:

• Generalizability
Qualitative research usually has a smaller sample
size, and thus is not generalizable. In mixed methods
research, this comparative weakness is mitigated by
the comparative strength of "large N," externally valid
quantitative research.
• Contextualization
Mixing methods allows the researcher to put findings in
context and add richer detail to his/her conclusions. Using
qualitative data to illustrate quantitative findings can help "put
meat on the bones" of the analysis.

• Credibility
Using different methods to collect data on the same subject
can make the results more credible. If the qualitative and
quantitative data converge, this strengthens the validity of the
research's conclusions. This process is called triangulation
 Other Types of Research

1. Exploratory Research
Exploratory research is a methodology approach that
investigates research questions that have not previously
been studied in depth. It is often qualitative in nature.
However, a study with a large sample conducted in an
exploratory manner can be quantitative as well. It is also
often referred to as interpretive research or a grounded
theory approach due to its flexible and open-ended nature
2. Descriptive Research
Descriptive research aims to accurately and
systematically describe a population; situation or
phenomenon. It can answer what, where, when and
how questions, but not why questions. A descriptive
research design can use a wide variety of research
methods to investigate one or more variables.
Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the
research aim is to identify characteristics, frequencies,
trends, and categories.
3. Explanatory Research
Explanatory research is a research method that
explores why something occurs when limited
information is available. It helps in increasing the
understanding of a given topic, ascertain how or why
a particular phenomenon is occurring, and predict
future occurrences. It can also be explained as a
"cause and effect" model, investigating patterns and
trends in existing data that haven't been previously
investigated. For this reason, it is often considered a
type of causal research
4. Correlational Research
A correlational research design investigates
relationships between variables without the
researcher controlling or manipulating any of
them. A correlation reflects the strength
and/or direction of the relationship between
two (or more) variables. The direction of a
correlation can be either positive or negative
5. Longitudinal Research
Longitudinal research focuses on how certain
measurements change over time without
manipulating any variables (Indeed Editorial Team,
2021). Researchers repeatedly examine the same
individuals to detect any changes that might occur
over a period of time. It is a type of correlational
research in which researchers observe and collect
data on a number of variables without trying to
influence those variables
6. Cross-sectional Research
A cross-sectional study is a type of research
design in which the researcher collects data
from many different individuals at a single point
in time. The variables are observed without
influencing them. Researchers in economics,
psychology, medicine, epidemiology, and the
other social sciences all make use of cross-
sectional studies in their work
7. Action Research
Action research refers to the process of
examining a person's or one's actions,
assessing their effectiveness in bringing about
the desired outcome and choosing a course of
action based on your results. This is typically
used in educational settings for teachers and
principals to perform a-type of self-assessment
and course correction
8. Policy-Oriented Research

Policy-oriented research is designed to

inform or understand one or more
aspects of the public and social policy
process, including decision making and
policy formulation, implementation, and
evaluation
9. Comparative Research

Comparative research is designed to identify

similarities and differences between two individuals,
subjects or groups (Indeed Editorial Team, 2021). It is
conducted mainly to explain and gain a better
understanding of the causal processes involved in the
creation of an event, feature or relationship usually by
bringing together variations in the explanatory
variable or variables (Adiyia and Ashton, 2017).
 Importance of Research
• Research provides the basis for many government policies. For
example, research on the needs and desires of the people and on
the availability of revenues to meet the needs helps a government
to prepare a budget.

• It is the fountain of knowledge and provides guidelines for solving

problems.

• Only through research inventions can be made; for example, new

and novel phenomena and processes such as superconductivity and
cloning have been discovered only through research.

• Research leads to a new style of life and makes it delightful and

 Importance of Research
• It is important in industry and business for higher gain and
productivity and to improve the quality of products.

• It leads to the identification and characterization of new materials,

new living things, new stars, etc.

• Mathematical and logical research on business and industry

optimizes the problems in them.

• Social research helps find answers to social problems. They

explain social phenomena and seek solutions to social problems.
 What is Criminological Research?
• Criminology is a scientific study of the nonlegal
aspects of crime and delinquency, including its
causes, correction, and prevention, from the
viewpoints of such diverse disciplines as
anthropology, biology, psychology and psychiatry,
economics, sociology, and statistics (Bernard, 2019).
It is a wide-ranging interdisciplinary field that
encompasses the study of crime and the criminal
justice system (Britt, 2005).
Importance of Criminological Research
• It creates a general explanation or theory to explain a crime;
• It tests the applicability of an existing theory of criminal justice
to a subgroup of the population;

• It tests the effectiveness of an existing social policy or

program in dealing with criminality and delinquency.

• It aids in forming sound and more effective policies and

procedures in the criminal justice system; and

• It helps identify more effective approaches to law enforcement

and the administration of Justice.
 Parts of Research Paper
1. Title Page
It is the first page of the paper that includes the name
of the paper, a "running heads", authors, and
institutional affiliation of the authors. The
institutional affiliation is usually listed in an Author
Note that is placed towards the bottom of the title
page. In some cases, the Author Note also contains
an acknowledgment of any funding support and of
any individuals that assisted with the research project
2. Abstract
It is a one-paragraph summary of the
entire study, typically no more than 250
words in length (and in many cases it is
well shorter than that), the Abstract
provides an overview of the study
3. Introduction
It is the first major section of text in the paper,
the Introduction commonly describes the topic
under investigation, summarizes or discusses
relevant prior research, identifies unresolved
issues that the current research will address,
and provides an overview of the research that is
to be described in greater detail in the sections
to follow
4. Methods
It is a section which details how the research was
performed. It typically features a description of the
participants/subjects that were involved, the study
design, the materials that were used, and the study
procedure. If there were multiple experiments, then
each experiment may require a separate Methods
section. It is important to note that the Methods
section should be sufficiently detailed for another
researcher to duplicate your research
5. Results

It is a section of the research which describes

the data that was collected and the results of
any statistical tests that were performed. It may
also be prefaced by a description of the analysis
procedure that was used. If there were multiple
experiments, then each experiment may require
a separate Results section
6. Discussion
It is the final major section of text in the paper.
The Discussion commonly features a summary
of the results that were obtained in the study,
describes how those results address the topic
under investigation and/or the issues that the
research was designed to address, and may
expand upon the implications of those findings.
Limitations and directions for future research are
also commonly addressed.
7. References
It is an alphabetized list of the sources that are
cited in the paper (by the last name of the first
author of each source). Each reference should
follow specific APA guidelines regarding author
names, dates, article titles, journal titles,
journal volume numbers, page numbers, book
publishers, publisher locations, websites, and
so on
8. Tables and Figures
In APA style, each Table and each Figure is
placed on a separate page and all Tables and
Figures are included after the References.
Tables are included first, followed by Figures.
However, for some journals and undergraduate
research papers, Tables and Figures may be
embedded in the text (depending on the
instructor's or editor's policies)
9. Appendix
This includes supplementary information
which is optional. In some cases,
additional information that is not. critical to
understanding the research paper, such
as a list of experiment stimuli, details of a
secondary analysis, or programming
code, is provided. This is often placed in
an Appendix
 Elements of Research

The following are the basic elements of a research

1. Variables
The purpose of all research is to describe and explain
variance in the world. Variance is simply the difference;
that is, variation that occurs naturally in the world or
change that the researcher creates as a result of a
manipulation.
2. Associations and Cause and Effect
Association means that two or more things are related
or connected to one another. It can be positive or
negative (the positive and negative associations do not
necessarily mean that the association is 'good' or 'bad').
Positive associations suggest that when one variable is
increased, the value of another variable increases (e.g.,
as the number of pedestrians increases, so do
jaywalking incidents). Negative associations mean that
when a variable is increased, the value of another
variable decreases (e.g., Police visibility increased and
petty crimes decreased)
3. Sampling
Sampling is the process of choosing participants for a
research study. Sampling involves choosing a small
group of participants that will represent a larger group.
Sampling is used because it is difficult or impractical to
include all members of a group (e.g., all drug addicts in
the Philippines). However, research projects are
designed to ensure that enough participants are recruited
to generate useful information that can be generalized to
the group represented (Office of Research Integrity, n.d.).
 Sampling techniques

Population - specific aggregation of

the elements. Also known as universe

Sample - representative portion of a

whole. Subset of a population
 A. Scientific Sampling

Is a subset of individuals chosen from a

larger set in which a subset of individuals
are chosen randomly, all with the same
probability. It is a process of selecting a
sample in a random way.
1.Simple Random
- Is a type of probability sampling in which the
researcher randomly selects a subset of participants
from a population. Each member of the population
has an equal chance of being selected. Data is then
collected from as large as percentage as possible of
this random subset.
2. Systematic - a design which all
individual in the population are arranged
in a methodical manner
3. Stratified Random - it divides first the
population into two or more strata. For each
stratum, the sample items were drawn at
random
4. Cluster Sampling - population is group
into clusters or small units, for instance,
block or districts, and are selected by
random sampling or systematic sampling.
Advantageous when individuals in the
districts or blocks belong to the
heterogeneous group
B. Non-Scientific Sampling

1. Purposive - based on choosing

individuals as sample according to
the purposes of the researcher
2. Incidental - a design applied to those
samples which are takes because they are
most valuable. the researcher simply takes
the nearest individual as subjects of the
study until the sample reaches the desired
size
3. Quota Sampling

researchers create a convenience sample

involving individuals that represent a
population. Researchers choose these
individuals according to specific traits or
qualities.
 4. Snowball Sampling

a recruitment technique in which

research participants are asked to assist
researchers in identifying other potential
subjects.
 Commonly Used Instruments
1. Questionnaire - written or printed form containing the
questions to be asked on the respondents.
2. Interview - involves face to face contact between the
interviewee and the interviewer
3. Observation - may be defined as perceiving data through
the sense: sight, hearing, taste, touch and smell. Sense of
sight is the most important and most used. Most direct way
and most widely used in studying behavior.
 Research Instrument
Classification of Research Instrument
1. Researcher Instrument - the researcher obtains
information or data himself with little or no direct
involvement of the other people
2. Subject Instrument - the information is collected
directly from the respondents
3. Informant Instrument - the information or data is
collected from those knowledgeable of the subject
matter
 What is a Thesis Paper?

A thesis paper is a comprehensive research paper often

written in consultation with a faculty adviser (Dowd, 2022). It
is a long essay that poses an interesting research question
and persuasively answers it. Along with an introductory
paragraph providing background information on a topic the
author is examining, he/she will write a thesis statement that
includes his/her own personal stance on the topic.
 What is a Thesis Statement?

A thesis statement is a sentence that states the topic and

purpose of the paper. The characteristics of a good
thesis statement are (The Writing Center. 2032):
• It tells the reader how you will interpret the significance
of the subject matter under discussion.
• It is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the
reader what to expect from the rest of the paper.
 Parts of Thesis Paper

1. Introduction
This chapter introduces the topic of the thesis to the reader.
The critical part of writing the Introduction is to establish the
statement of the problem and research questions. Basically,
the author is justifying to the reader why it is necessary to
study this topic and what research question(s) his/her study
will answer. Usually, the topic is based around a particular
problem area that the author wants to focus on (Bui, 2014).
This includes a section on the following:
a.Statement of the Problem
b.Background and Need
c.Purpose of the Study
d.Research Questions
2. Review of the Literature
The next chapter introduces the reader to the research
literature related to the topic. The critical part of writing
Chapter Two is to identify the most relevant and significant
research related to the topic of the study rather than conduct
an exhaustive search. Basically, the author is informing the
reader of the critical studies that have been conducted related
to this topic. This provides the reader with the background
information that he or she needs to understand the problem(s)
related to the topic.
3. Methods
The Third chapter explains the research methods
and design that were used to conduct the study.
The critical part of writing Chapter Three is to
describe the actual procedures that were used to
conduct the study. Basically, the author informs
the reader of how the study was conducted.
Thus, he/she needs to include detailed
descriptions about every aspect of the study.
4. Results
Chapter Four reports the results of the study. The
critical part of writing Chapter Four is to present the
findings from the data collection process in Chapter
Three. Basically, the author is informing the reader of
what was discovered. This chapter integrates a
narrative, numerical, and/or tabular presentation of the
outcomes of the study, depending on whether the
author has conducted a qualitative or quantitative
study.
5. Discussion
The last chapter in the thesis, Chapter Five,
discusses the results from Chapter Four and draws
conclusions about the study's findings. The critical
part of writing Chapter Five is to discuss the
findings in relation to the statement of the problem
and the research questions that were identified in
Chapter One. The discussion section includes the
significant findings and the researcher's
interpretation based on the results.
 What is a Research Design?

A research design is a strategy for answering the research

question using empirical data (McCombes, 2021). It refers
to the overall strategy that the researcher chooses to
integrate the different components of the study in a
coherent and logical way, thereby ensuring the effective
address of the research problem; it constitutes the
blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of
data. It is important to note that the research problem
determines the type of design that needs to be used, not
the other way around
Types of Research Design
Action Research Design

It is a collaborative and adaptive research design that focuses on

pragmatic and solution-driven research outcomes rather than testing
theories (USC, 2022). It has three primary characteristics (Deakin
University, 2022):
• Action oriented, participants are actively involved in the research;

• Involvement by participants in the research, collaborative process between

participant and researcher, empowerment of participants. The participants have
more of a say in what is being researched and how they want the research to be
conducted; and
• The cycle is iterative so that it is flexible and responsive to a changing situation.
Case Study Design
A case study is a research approach that is used to generate
an in- depth, multi-faceted understanding of a complex issue
in its real-life context. It is an established research design that
is used extensively in a wide variety of disciplines, particularly
in the social sciences (Crowe, Cresswell, Robertson, et al.,
2011). It is an in-depth study of a particular research problem
rather than a sweeping statistical survey or comprehensive
comparative inquiry.
Mixed Methods Design

A mixed methods research design is a

procedure for collecting, analyzing, and
"mixing" both quantitative and qualitative
research and methods in a single study
to understand a research problem
(Creswell. 2012).
 The following are the Four major
mixed methods design:
Convergent Parallel Design
A convergent parallel design entails that the
researcher concurrently conducts the quantitative and
qualitative elements in the same phase of the research
process, weighs the methods equally, analyzes the
two components independently, and interprets the
results together
In Convergent Parallel Design the researcher :
1. Collects quantitative and qualitative data
concurrently
2. Analyzes the two data sets separately
3. Mixes the two databases by merging the
results during interpretation (and sometimes
during data analysis).
Explanatory Sequential Design

The explanatory sequential approach is a

sequential approach and is used when the
researcher is interested in following up the
quantitative results with qualitative data. Thus,
the qualitative data is used in the subsequent
interpretation and clarification of the results from
the quantitative data analysis.
In Explanatory Sequential Design the researcher:
• Starts by collecting and analyzing quantitative data,
• Collects and analyzes qualitative data in a second
phase as a follow-up to the quantitative results, and
• Connects the phases by using the quantitative
results to shape the qualitative research questions,
sampling, and data collection.
Exploratory Sequential Design
An exploratory sequential design is a mixed
methods study design, where the quantitative
phase of data collection and analysis follows the
qualitative phase of data collection and analysis
In Exploratory Sequential Design the researcher :

• Collects and analyzes qualitative data first followed by

quantitative data,
• Analyzes the qualitative data and uses results to build
to the subsequent quantitative phase, and
• Connects the phases by using the qualitative results
to shape the quantitative phase by specifying research
questions and variables, developing an instrument,
and/or generating a typology.
 Ethical Considerations in Research Writing
Study Design and Ethics Approval
According to the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), a good
research should be well adjusted, well-planned, appropriately
designed, and ethically approved. To conduct research to a lower
standard may constitute misconduct (2004). A research protocol
should be developed and adhered to. It must be carefully agreed to
by all contributors and collaborators, and the precise roles of each
team member should be spelled out early, including matters of
authorship and publications. Research should seek to answer
specific questions, rather than just collect data (Jenn, 2006).
Data Analysis

Analyzing the data appropriately is the

responsibility of the researcher. Inappropriate
analysis may not necessarily amount to
misconduct, however intentional omission of
result may cause misinterpretation and mislead
the readers. Fabrication and falsification of data
do constitute misconduct (Jenn, 2006).
Authorship
It is crucial to decide early on in the planning of
a research who will be credited as authors, as
contributors, and who will be acknowledged. An
author should have made substantial
contributions to the intellectual content, including
conceptualizing and designing the study;
acquiring. analyzing and interpreting the data.
Conflicts of Interest
This happens when researchers have interests
that are not fully apparent and that may
influence their judgments on what is published.
These conflicts include personal, commercial,
political, academic or financial interest. Such
interests, where relevant, should be discussed
in the early stage of research
Redundant Publication and Plagiarism
Redundant publication occurs when two or more
papers, without full cross reference, share the
same hypothesis, data, discussion points, or
conclusions. On the other hand, plagiarism
ranges from unreferenced use of others'
published and unpublished ideas, including
research grant applications to submission under
new authorship of a complete paper, sometimes
in different languages.
Conducting criminological studies, especially those involving sensitive data,
requires careful consideration of various ethical concerns to protect the rights
and well-being of individuals and communities involved. Here are some key
ethical considerations researchers need to account for:
1. Informed Consent: It's crucial to obtain informed consent from
participants, ensuring they understand the nature of the research, how
their data will be used, and the potential risks and benefits of their
involvement. For studies involving minors or vulnerable populations,
additional consent from guardians or legal representatives may be
required.
2. Confidentiality and Anonymity: Researchers must protect the identity
of participants and the confidentiality of the data collected. This involves
anonymizing data and implementing secure data storage and handling
protocols to prevent unauthorized access or breaches.
3. Minimizing Harm: Researchers should aim to minimize any potential
harm to participants. This includes psychological distress, legal risks, or
social stigmatization that might arise from participation in the study.
4. Vulnerability and Coercion: Special care must be taken when
involving vulnerable populations, such as juveniles, incarcerated
individuals, or victims of crime, to ensure that their participation is
voluntary and free from coercion.
5. Data Integrity and Reporting: Ethical research practices also
extend to the accurate collection, analysis, and reporting of data.
Researchers should avoid any bias or manipulation of data that
could lead to misleading conclusions. Negative or inconclusive
results should be reported just as rigorously as positive findings.
6. Legal Compliance: Compliance with legal requirements and
regulations governing the collection and use of sensitive data is
essential. This includes adhering to privacy laws, data protection
regulations, and any specific legal frameworks relevant to
7. Beneficence: Researchers should consider the potential
benefits of their research to society, aiming to contribute
valuable insights that can aid in the prevention,
intervention, and understanding of criminal behavior. The
goal should be to produce knowledge that can lead to
positive societal impacts.
8. Respect for Cultures and Communities: Studies should
respect the cultural norms and values of the communities
involved, avoiding any actions that could be considered
disrespectful or harmful. Engaging with community
leaders or representatives can be beneficial in ensuring
research is conducted in a culturally sensitive manner.
 Developing a Problem

•A research problem is a specific issue, difficulty,

contradiction, or gap in knowledge that the
researcher will aim to address in his/her study
(McCombes, 2019). It is the main organizing
principle guiding the analysis of the research paper.
It represents the core subject matter of scholarly
communication, and the means by which the
researcher/ reader arrives at other topics of
conversations and the discovery of new knowledge
and understanding (Alvesson, and Sandberg, 2013).
 Types of Research Problems

1. Theoretical Research Problem

- It focuses on expanding knowledge and understanding
rather than directly contributing to change.
- Identificationof a research problem in theoretical
research is achieved by analyzing theories and fresh
research literature relating to a broad area of research.
This practice helps to find gaps in the research done
by others.
2. Applied Research Problem
It is a non-systematic problem, involving the
practical use of theoretical knowledge. They are
typically identified by analyzing reports, previous
research studies, and interactions with the
experienced personnel of pertinent disciplines.
3. Action Research Problem
It aims to provide solutions for problems that are time-
sensitive and immediate. It is a part of a larger
reflective ongoing process that combines research,
analysis and action (Indeed Editorial Team, 2022).
Researchers develop and implement a research
strategy to create innovative solutions and discoveries
as soon as possible.
 Research Framework

A research framework clearly illustrates the structure

of the research plan and helps the researcher
formulate relevant research questions. It is used to
understand a research problem and guide the
development, collection, and analysis of research.
 Types of Research Frameworks
1. Theoretical Framework
It introduces and describes the theory/theories
underpinning the research problem. It is a foundational
review of existing theories that serves as a roadmap
for developing the arguments you will use in your own
work. Thus, theoretical frameworks support research
by describing and/or drawing from relevant theoretical
aspects obtained in previous work
2. Conceptual Framework
It is like a roadmap for the study, helping the
researcher visualize his/her research project and put it
into action. It defines the relevant variables for the
study and maps out how they might relate to each
other. It is a written or visual representation that
explains the study variables and their relationships
with each other.
It is the stimulus variable that is chosen by the
researcher to determine its relationship to an
observed phenomenon

a. Independent Variable
b. Dependent Variable
c. Control Variable
d. Intervening Variable
When developing a conceptual framework, the researcher will need to
identify the following:

• Independent variables It is the variable the researcher manipulate or vary in an

experimental study to explore its effects.
• Dependent variables. It is the variable that changes as a result of the
independent variable manipulation.
• Moderating variables It changes the relationship between independent and
dependent variables when its value increases or decreases.
• Mediating variables. It links independent and dependent variables to better
explain the relationship between them.
• Control variables-It could potentially impact the cause-and-effect relationship
but is kept constant throughout the study so that its effects on the
findings/outcomes can be ruled out.
 Review of Literatures and Related Studies

- A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on

a specific topic. It provides an overview of current
knowledge, allowing the researcher to identify relevant
theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research
- It is a summary of studies related to a particular area.
of research, that identifies and summarizes all the
relevant research conducted on a particular topic
 Sources of Information

In doing the research, there are variety of sources

where the researcher gather information and
evidences. Sources of information or evidence are
often categorized based on the originality of the
material and the proximity of the source or origin.
1. Primary Sources
These sources are records of events or
evidence as they are first described or actually
happened without any interpretation or
commentary. It is information that is shown for
the first time or original materials on which other
research is based. Primary sources display
original thinking, report on new discoveries, or
share fresh information
2. Secondary Sources
These sources offer an analysis or
restatement of primary sources. They often
try to describe or explain primary sources.
They tend to be works which summarize,
interpret, reorganize, or otherwise provide
an added value to a primary source
3. Tertiary Sources
These are sources that index, abstract,
organize, compile, or digest other sources.
Some reference materials and textbooks are
considered tertiary sources when their" chief
purpose is to list, summarize or simply
repackage ideas or other information.
Tertiary sources are usually not credited to a
particular author
 Data Gathering
Data gathering or collection is a systematic method of
collecting and measuring data gathered from different
sources of information in order to provide answers to
relevant questions. An accurate evaluation of
collected data can help researchers predict future
phenomenon and trends. Data collection is a crucial
aspect in any level of research work. If data are
inaccurately collected, it will surely impact the
findings of the study, thereby leading to false or
invaluable outcome.
 What is Qualitative Research?

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-

numerical data like text, video, or audio; to understand
concepts, opinions, or experiences (Bhandari, 2020). It is
designed to explore the human elements of a given topic,
where specific methods are used to examine how
individuals see and experience the world
 Qualitative Research Approach
1.Phenomenological Research
Phenomenological Research attempts
to understand problems, ideas, and
situations from the perspective of
common understanding and experience
rather than differences.
2. Grounded Theory Methodology
Grounded Theory Methodology is an inductive,
comparative methodology that provides systematic
guidelines for gathering, synthesizing, analyzing, and
conceptualizing qualitative data for the purpose of
theory construction. It is a research method that will
enable a researcher to develop a theory which offers
an explanation about the main concern of the
population of your substantive area and how that
concern is resolved or processed
3. Ethnography
Ethnography or Ethnographic study, is a form of
qualitative research that has a long tradition in the
field of anthropology. It was developed specifically
to study human society and culture (Merriam,
2009). It is a descriptive study of a particular
human society, it is based almost entirely on
fieldwork and requires the complete immersion of
the researcher in the culture and everyday life of
the people who are the subject of his study
4. Biographical Research
Biographical Research or Life-history Methodology is an
assembly of procedures for generating and interpreting
the stories or narratives of individual lives. It is a generic
term for a variety of approaches to qualitative study that
focuses on the generation, analysis, and presentation of
data of a life history," life story, personal experience
narrative, autobiography, and biography. It assumes that
a social action can best be understood from the account
and perspective of the people involved, and thus the
focus is on an individual subjective definition and
experience of life
5. Case Study Research
The case study is an intensive description
and analysis of a phenomenon or social
unit such as individual, group, institutions
or community. By concentrating upon a
single phenomenon or case, this
approach seeks to describe the
phenomenon in depth
6. Historical Research
Historical research is a type of
qualitative research that looks at past
events to draw conclusions as well as
make predictions about the future
(Historical Research Design: Definition,
Advantages & Limitations, 2013)
 What is Quantitative Research?

Quantitative research involves the process of

objectively collecting and analyzing numerical data to
describe, predict, or control variables of interest
(McLeod, 2019). It can be used to find patterns and
averages, make predictions, test causal relationships,
and generalize results to wider populations
 Quantitative Research Approach

1. Non Experimental Research Designs

Nonexperimental Research is a group of
techniques used to conduct quantitative
research where there is no manipulation done
to any variable in the study. The variables are
measured as they naturally occurred, without
any interference from the researcher.
 Types of Non Experimental Research
Designs
1. Descriptive Research
Descriptive research seeks to describe the current status of
an identified variable. These research projects are designed
to provide systematic information about a phenomenon. It
aims to accurately and systematically describe a population,
situation or phenomenon. It can answer what, where, when
and how questions, but not why questions.
2. Observational Research

Quantitative observational research focuses on a

particular aspect of behavior that can be
quantified through some measure. It involves
performing research to find information about
entire populations. It involves conducting surveys
and administering polls to individuals to
understand numerical data, like height, weight
and age
3. Survey Research
Survey Research aim is to describe characteristics
of a group or population, in which the researcher
administers surveyor questionnaire to a sample or
in other cases in an entire population of individuals
to describe their opinions, attitudes, behaviors,
experiences, or other characteristics of the
population. Survey research means collecting
information about a group of people by asking
them questions and analyzing the results
4. Correlational Research
The objective of correlational research is to
discover and then measure, relationships
between two or more variables. Relationship
means that an individual's status of a variable
tends to reflect his or her status on another
variable. It investigates relationships between
variables without the researcher controlling or
manipulating any of them
5. Causal Comparative Research
Causal Comparative studies deal with the
exploration of the reason behind the existing
differences between two or more groups. It
intends to study conditions that have already
occurred (Mertler, 2018). It is a method used to
identify the cause-effect relationship between a
dependent and independent variable.
 Quantitative Research Approach
2. Experimental Research Designs
Experimental Research is a group of techniques
where the researcher establishes different treatments
or conditions and then studies their effects on the
participants. Due to this ability to manipulate the
treatment conditions and control for many extraneous
factors, experimental studies are the most conclusive
of all research designs
 Types of Experimental Research
Designs
1. Pre Experimental Research Designs
Pre-experimental designs are research schemes in
which a subject or a group is observed after a
treatment has been applied, in order to test whether
the treatment has the potential to cause change. The
prefix pre- conveys two different senses in which this
type of design differs from experiments
2. Quasi Experimental Research Designs
Quasi Experimental Studies attempts to
establish a cause-and-effect relationship. The
main difference with a true experiment is that
the groups are not randomly assigned
(Thomas, 2020). is a useful tool in situations
where true experiments cannot be used for
ethical or practical reasons
3. True Experimental Research Designs
True Experimental studies have both
random selection and random assignment.
It used to study causal relationships.
Researchers manipulate one or more
independent variables and measure their
effect on one or more dependent variables
 Quantitative Data Analysis
Quantitative data analysis simply means analysing data
that is numbers-based or data that can be easily
"converted into numbers without losing any meaning.
Quantitative analysis is generally used for three purposes:

• To measure differences between groups;

• To assess relationships between variables; and
• To test hypotheses in a scientifically rigorous way.
 Two Branches of Quantitative Data
Analysis
1. Descriptive Statistics
It summarizes or describes the characteristics
of a data set. It describe and understand the
features of a specific data set by giving short
summaries about the sample and measures of
the data.
Descriptive statistics consists of two basic categories of measures
(Hayes, 2022):

a. Measures of Central Tendency. It describe the center of a data set.

It focuses on the average or middle values of data sets. It describe the
center position of a distribution for a data set. A person analyzes the
frequency of each data point in the distribution and describes it using
the (Hayes, 2023):

Mean- this is simply the mathematical average of a range of numbers.

Median this is the midpoint in a range of numbers when the numbers

are arranged in numerical order. If the data set makes up an odd
number, then the median is the number right in the middle of the set.

Mode- this is simply the most commonly occurring number in the data
b. Measures of Variability (or spread)- It describe the dispersion
of data within the set. It aid in analyzing how dispersed the
distribution is for a set of data. For example, while the measures of
central tendency may give a person the average of a data set, it
does not describe how the data is distributed within the set (Hayes,
2022). This can be measured by:

Standard deviation-this metric indicates how dispersed a range of

numbers is. In other words, how close all the numbers are to the
mean (the average).

Skewness-This indicates how symmetrical a range of numbers is."

2. Inferential Statistics
It aims to make inferences about the
population. It makes predictions based on
the data. It helps to suggest explanations
for a situation or phenomenon and allows
the researcher to draw conclusions based
on extrapolations
This format of thesis writing is most commonly
used to cite sources within the social sciences.

a. Chicago Style
b. Modern Language Association (MLA)
c. American Psychological Association (APA)
d. Nota
 Formatting Style
Following proper citation and formatting
guidelines helps writers ensure that their
work will be taken seriously, give proper
credit to other authors for their work, and
provide valuable information to readers.
 APA (American Psychological Association)
Style
APA (American Psychological Association) style is
most commonly used to cite sources within the
social sciences. This resource, revised according
to the 7th edition of the APA manual, offers
examples for the general format of APA research
papers, in-text citations, endnotes/ footnotes,
and the reference page..
Guidelines for APA Style Paper (7th edition)

Page Layout and Font

• Type the content and keep double-space on standard-sized
paper (8.5" x 11"), with 1" margins on all sides.
• You should indent the first line of every paragraph 0.5 inches
• Include a page number on every page.
• You could use an accessible font like Times New Roman
12pt., Arial 11pt., or Georgia 11pt.
APA Research Paper Sections
Title Page
• As per the APA research paper format, the title should be
between 10-12 words and should reflect the essence of the
paper.
• After writing the title, write your name followed by name of
the college or your institution.
• Furthermore, create a page header using the "View Header"
function in MS Word and on the title page include a running
head-a short title that appears at the top of pages of
published articles (flush left) and page number on the same
line (flush right). The running head should not exceed so
characters, including punctuation and spacing.
 Changes in the 7th Edition
THE TITLE PAGE
The newest edition of the APA manual recommends different title
pages for students and professionals. Professional title pages
include:

• the title of the paper,

• the name of each author of the paper,
• the affiliation for each author,
• an author note (if desired),
• a running head (which also appears on the following pages,
• a page number (which also appears on the following pages.
Students Format :

• the title of the paper,

• the name of each author of the paper,
• the affiliation for each author (typically the school being attended),
• the course number and name for which the paper is being written (use
the format used by the school or institution (e.g., ENGL 106),
• the course instructor’s name and title (ask for the instructor’s preferred
form if possible; e.g., some instructors may prefer “Dr.,” “Ms.,” “Mrs.,”
“Mr.,” or a different title),
• the assignment’s due date written in the format most common in your
country (e.g., either January 3, 2020, or 3 January 2020 may be
appropriate),
• a page number (which also appears on the following pages.
Abstract
Beginning with the next line, write a concise summary of
the key points of your research. (Do not indent.) Your
abstract should contain at least your research topic,
research questions, participants, methods, results, data
analysis, and conclusions. You may also include possible
implications of your research and future work you see
connected with your findings. Your abstract should be a
single paragraph, double-spaced
Introduction

A good introduction critically evaluates the

empirical knowledge in the relevant area(s) in a
way that defines the knowledge gap and
expresses your aim for your study and why you
conducted it. However, the challenge here is to
keep the reader's interest in reading your paper.
Methods

The method section in APA research paper format

is straightforward. However, the protocol and
requirements should be mentioned precisely. The
goal of this section is to describe your study and
experiments in detail, so that there is no issue in
reproducibility of results and other researchers
could duplicate your methods effectively.
Discussion

Results are interpreted and understood in this

section. Discussion section helps understand the
research hypothesis better and places the results in
the broader context of the literature in the area.
This section is the reversal of introduction section,
wherein you begin with the specifics and explain
the general understanding of the topics.
References

Provide an alphabetical listing of the references.

Do not keep extra spaces between references
and double- space all the references. The second
line of each reference should be intended. You
could refer to the examples (mentioned below)
to know how to format references correctly.
 APA 7th Edition

APA style is a citation (or referencing) method

developed by the American Psychological Association
and is a version of the commonly used Author-Date
system. This guide is based on the following text:
American Psychological Association. ( 2020).
Publication manual of the American Psychological
Association (7th ed.).
 APA in-text citation rules

 The first rule is to include author’s last name and the

year of publication in parentheses in the text. The
name of the author and the year of publication should
follow by a comma.

 In case of a direct quotation, the in-text citation should

also provide the page number.
 In case there is no author mentioned on the
source but an editor is present you can mention
editor’s last name in the parenthetical citation.

 When the author name is unknown you have to

mention title and date in the in-text citation. If the
title is too long you can write just the first few
words from the title.
 Multiple authors
Parenthetical Narrative citation
citation
1 author (Smith, 2020) Smith (2020)
2 authors (Smith & Jones, Smith and Jones
2020) (2020)
3+ authors (Smith et al., Smith et al.
2020) (2020)
 Paper Format
Font
A variety of fonts are permitted in APA style papers. Font
options include the following:
SANS SERIF FONTS :
such as 11-point calibri, 11-point arial, or 10-point lucida
sans unicode
SERIF FONTS
such as 12-point times new roman, 11-point Georgia
 Professional title page
• Paper title = center and type it in bold font
• Author names = place one double-spaced
blank line between the paper title and the
author names
• Author affiliation = for a professional
paper, the affiliation is the institution at
which the research was conducted
• Author note = place the author note in the
bottom half of the title page. center and
bold the label “author note.”
 In-Text Citations

Basic Principles of Citation

APA style uses the author–date citation system, in

which a brief in-text citation directs readers to a full
reference list entry. The in-text citation appears within
the body of the paper and briefly identifies the cited
work by its author and date of publication.
 Paraphrasing
A paraphrase restates another’s idea (or your own
previously published idea) in your own words.
Paraphrasing allows you to summarize and synthesize
information from one or more sources, focus on
significant information, and compare and contrast
relevant details.
 Quotations
A direct quotation reproduces words verbatim from
another work or from your own previously published
work.
Use direct quotations rather than paraphrasing:
• When reproducing an exact definition
• When an author has said something memorably or
succinctly, or
• When you want to respond to exact wording
 Parenthetical In-Text Citation
(Direct quotation)
This citation typically consists of the author’s last
name(s), year of publication, and page number in
parentheses at the end of the sentence. The period
goes after the closed parenthesis.
“This is a direct citation” (chapman, 2019, p. 126).
 Narrative In-Text Citation
(direct qoutation)

Another option is to use the author’s name in the

sentence, followed directly by the year in parentheses,
with the page numbers in parentheses at the end of
the sentence.
According to Buhisan (2018), "this is a direct citation"
(p. 216).
 STYLE GUIDELINES
• Use clear, concise language; avoid contractions and
colloquialisms
• Numerals under 10 should be spelled out; 10 and above
expressed as a number
• Past tense verbs should be used to refer to events that occurred
at a specific point in the past (such as a researcher’s work)
• use “I” in place of editorial “we”
• do not use “he” or “she” as a generic pronoun; it is acceptable
to use “they” or rephrase the Sentence
• Avoid biased language that reveals sex, gender, race, disability,
socio-economic status
 UN-PAGINATED SOURCES

• Provide a heading or section name

• use an abbreviated name in quotes if the section name is too
long (gecht-silver & duncombe, 2015, osteoarthritis section).
• Provide a paragraph number (count manually if not
numbered) (chamberlin, 2014, para. 1).
• Provide a timestamp for beginning of material quoted from
audio/visual sources (cuddy, 2012, 2:12)