Lec 10

Course: Introduction to Power Engineering
Nisma Saleem
Lecture 10
Effects of
Transmission
Lines
Skin Effect
Effects of
Transmission Corona Losses
Lines
Sag of overhead lines

Sag in Overhead Lines
• While erecting an overhead line, it is very important that conductors are under safe
tension.
• If the conductors are too much stretched between supports in a bid to save conductor
material, the stress in the conductor may reach unsafe value and in certain cases the
conductor may break due to excessive tension.
• In order to permit safe tension in the conductors, they are not fully stretched but are
allowed to have a dip or sag.
• The difference in level between points of supports and the lowest point on the
conductor is called sag.
Sag in Overhead Lines
• Fig. (i) shows a conductor suspended between two equilevel supports A and B. The
conductor is not fully stretched but is allowed to have a dip. The lowest point on the
conductor is O and the sag is S. The following points may be noted:
Conductor Sag and Tension
• This is an important consideration in the mechanical design of overhead lines.
• The conductor sag should be kept to a minimum in order to reduce the conductor
material required and to avoid extra pole height for sufficient clearance above ground
level.
• It is also desirable that tension in the conductor should be low to avoid the mechanical
failure of conductor and to permit the use of less strong supports.
• However, low conductor tension and minimum sag are not possible.
• It is because low sag means a tight wire and high tension, whereas a low
tension means a loose wire and increased sag.
• Therefore, in actual practice, a compromise is
made between the two.
Calculation of Sag
• In an overhead line, the sag should be so adjusted that tension in the conductors is
within safe limits.
• The tension is governed by:
• conductor weight
• effects of wind
• ice loading
• and temperature variations.
• It is a standard practice to keep conductor tension less than 50% of its ultimate tensile
strength i.e., minimum factor of safety in respect of conductor tension should be 2.
• We shall now calculate sag and tension of a conductor when
(i) supports are at equal levels and
(ii) supports are at unequal levels.
Calculation of Sag-
(i) Supports are at equal levels
• Consider a conductor between two equilevel supports A and B with O as the lowest point as
shown in Figure.
• It can be proved that lowest point will be at the mid-span.
• Consider a point P on the conductor.

• Taking the lowest point O as the origin, let the co-
ordinates of point P be x and y.
Calculation of Sag-
• Assuming that the curvature is so small that curved length is equal to its horizontal projection
(i.e., OP = x), the two forces acting on the portion OP of the conductor are:
(a) The weight wx of conductor acting at a distance x/2 from O.
(b) The tension T acting at O
• Equating the moments of above two forces about point O, we get:
• The maximum dip (sag) is represented by the value

of y at either of the supports A and B.
Calculation of Sag-
Calculation of Sag-
(ii) Supports are at un-equal levels
• In hilly areas, we generally come across conductors suspended between supports at unequal
levels.
• Figure shows a conductor suspended between two supports A and B which are at different
levels.
• The lowest point on the conductor is O.
Calculation of Sag-
• .
Calculation of Sag-
• .
Proximity Effect in Transmission lines
• When the conductors carry the high alternating voltage then the currents are non-
uniformly distributed on the cross-section area of the conductor. This effect is called
proximity effect.
• The proximity effect results in the increment of the apparent resistance of the
conductor due to the presence of the other conductors carrying current in its vicinity.
• When two or more conductors carrying alternating current are close to each other,
then distribution of current in each conductor is affected due to the varying magnetic
field of each other.
• Due to the interaction of their electromagnetic fields, the current in each of them is
redistributed such that the greater current density is concentrated in that part of the
strand most remote from the interfering conductor.
Proximity Effect in Transmission lines
• If the conductors carry the current in the same direction, then the magnetic field of the halves
of the conductors which are close to each other is cancelling each other and hence no current
flow through that halves portion of the conductor. The current is crowded in the remote half
portion of the conductor.
• When the conductors carry the current in the opposite direction, then the close part of the
conductor carries, the more current and the magnetic field of the far off half of the conductor
cancel each other. Thus, the current is zero in the remote half of the conductor and crowded at
the nearer part of the conductor.
Factors affecting Proximity Effect
• If DC flows on the surface of the conductor, then the current are uniformly distributed around
the cross section area of the conductor. Hence, no proximity effect occurs on the surface of the
conductor.
• The proximity effect is important only for conductor sizes greater than 125 mm2.Correction
factors are to be applied to take this fact into account.
• The proximity effect mainly depends on the following factors:
• Frequency – The proximity increases with the increases in the frequency.

• Diameter – The proximity effect increases with the increase in the conductor.
• Structure – This effect is more on the solid conductor as compared to the stranded conductor
(i.e., ASCR) because the surface area of the stranded conductor is smaller than the solid
conductor.
• Material – If the material is made up of high ferromagnetic material then the proximity effect
is more on their surface.
Proximity Effect
• The proximity effect can be reduced by using the ACSR (Aluminum Core Steel
Reinforced) conductor.
• In ACSR conductor the steel is placed at the center of the conductor and the
aluminium conductor is positioned around steel wire.
• The steel increased the strength of the conductor but reduced the surface area of the
conductor. Thus, the current flow mostly in the outer layer of the conductor and no
current is carried in the center of the conductor. Thus, reduced the proximity effect on
the conductor.
Ferranti Effect
• The effect in which the voltage at the receiving end of the transmission line is more
than the sending voltage is known as the Ferranti effect. Such type of effect mainly
occurs because of light load or open circuit at the receiving end.
• Ferranti effect is due to the charging current of the line.
• When an alternating voltage is applied, the current that flows into the capacitor is
called charging current. A charging current is also known as capacitive current.
• The charging current increases in the line when the receiving end voltage of the line
is larger than the sending end.
• Capacitance and inductance are the main parameters of the lines having a length
240km or above. On such transmission lines, the capacitance is not concentrated at
some definite points. It is distributed uniformly along the whole length of the line.
Ferranti Effect
• When the voltage is applied at the sending end, the current drawn by the capacitance
of the line is more than current associated with the load. Thus, at no load or light load,
the voltage at the receiving end is quite large as compared to the constant voltage at
the sending end.
• Electrical devices are designed to work at some particular voltage. If the voltages are
high at the user ends their equipment get damaged, and their windings burn because
of high voltage. Ferranti effect on long transmission lines at low load or no load
increases the receiving end voltage. This voltage can be controlled by placing the
shunt reactors at the receiving end of the lines.
• Shunt reactor is an inductive current element connected between line and neutral to
compensate the capacitive current from transmission lines. When this effect occurs in
long transmission lines, shunt reactors compensate the capacitive VAR of the lines
and therefore the voltage is regulated within the prescribed limits.

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Course: Introduction to Power Engineering

Sag of overhead lines

• Consider a point P on the conductor.

• The maximum dip (sag) is represented by the value

• Frequency – The proximity increases with the increases in the frequency.

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