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Chapter 12
Refrigeration Cycles

Thermodynamics: An Engineering
Approach, 10th Edition
Yunus A. Cengel | Michael A. Boles |
Mehmet Kanoglu McGraw-Hill, 2024

© McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.
 Objectives
• Introduce the concepts of refrigerators and heat pumps and the
measure of their performance.
• Analyze the ideal vapor–compression refrigeration cycle.
• Analyze the actual vapor–compression refrigeration cycle.
• Perform second–law analysis of vapor–compression refrigeration
cycle.
• Review the factors involved in selecting the right refrigerant for an
application.
• Discuss the operation of refrigeration and heat pump systems.
• Evaluate the performance of innovative vapor–compression
refrigeration systems.
• Analyze gas refrigeration systems.
• Introduce the concepts of absorption–refrigeration systems.

© McGraw Hill 2
 12-1 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps 1

Figure 12-1
The objective of a refrigerator
is to remove heat (QL ) from
the cold medium; the objective
of a heat pump is to supply
heat (QH ) to a warm medium.

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 12-1 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps 2

The transfer of heat from a low–temperature

region to a high–temperature one requires
special devices called refrigerators.
Another device that transfers heat from a low–
temperature medium to a high–temperature
one is the heat pump.

Refrigerators and heat pumps are essentially

the same devices; they differ in their
objectives only.

Figure 12-1 Coefficient of Performance

Desired output Cooling effect QL
For fixed values of COPR   
Required input Workinput Wnet, in
Q L and QH
Desired output Heating effect Q
COPHP  COPR +1 COPHP    H
Required input Workinput Wnet, in
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 12-2 The Reversed Carnot Cycle 1

TL 1
COPR,Carnot = =
TH  TL TH / TL  1
TH 1
COPHP,Carnot = =
TH  TL 1  TL / TH

Both COPs increase as the difference between

the two temperatures decreases, that is, as
TL rises or TH falls.

Figure 12-2
Schematic of a Carnot
refrigerator and T–s diagram
of the reversed Carnot cycle.

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 12-2 The Reversed Carnot Cycle 2

The reversed Carnot cycle is the most

efficient refrigeration cycle operating
between
T L and TH .
It is not a suitable model for refrigeration
cycles since processes 2–3 and 4–1 are
not practical.
• Process 2–3 involves the compression
of a liquid–vapor mixture, which
requires a compressor that will handle
Figure 12-2
two phases.
Schematic of a Carnot refrigerator • Process 4–1 involves the expansion of
and T–s diagram of the reversed high–moisture–content refrigerant in a
Carnot cycle. turbine.

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 12-3 The Ideal Vapor–Compression
Refrigeration Cycle 1

The vapor–compression refrigeration cycle is the ideal

model for refrigeration systems. Unlike the reversed Carnot
cycle, the refrigerant is vaporized completely before it is
compressed and the turbine is replaced with a throttling device.

1–2 Isentropic compression in a compressor.

2–3 Constant–pressure heat rejection in a condenser.
3–4 Throttling in an expansive device.
4–1 Constant–pressure heat absorption in an evaporator.

This is the most widely

used cycle for
Figure 12-3 refrigerators, A–C
Schematic and T–s diagram for systems, and heat
the ideal vapor–compression pumps.
refrigeration cycle.

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 12-3 The Ideal Vapor–Compression
Refrigeration Cycle 2

Steady–flow energy balance

(qin  qout )  ( win  wout )  he  hi
qL h h
COPR   1 4
wnet, in h2  h1
qH h h
COPHP   2 3
wnet, in h2  h1
h1  hg @ P1

Figure 12-3 h3  h f @ P3
T–s diagram for the ideal vapor–compression refrigeration cycle.

The ideal vapor–compression refrigeration cycle involves an irreversible

(throttling) process to make it a more realistic model for the actual systems.
Replacing the expansion valve by a turbine is not practical since the added
benefits cannot justify the added cost and complexity.
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 12-3 The Ideal Vapor–Compression
Refrigeration Cycle 3

Figure 12-5
The P–h diagram of an ideal vapor–
Figure 12-4
compression refrigeration cycle.
An ordinary household refrigerator.

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© McGraw Hill 9
 12-4 Actual Vapor–Compression
Refrigeration Cycle
An actual vapor–compression refrigeration cycle differs from
the ideal one owing mostly to the irreversibilities that occur in
various components, mainly due to fluid friction (causes
pressure drops) and heat transfer to or from the surroundings.
The COP decreases as a result of irreversibilities.

– Non–isentropic compression.
– Superheated vapor at evaporator
exit.
– Subcooled liquid at condenser
Figure 12-7
exit.
Schematic and T–s
diagram for the – Pressure drops in condenser and
actual vapor– evaporator.
compression
refrigeration cycle.

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 12-5 Second–Law Analysis of Vapor–
Compression Refrigeration Cycle 1

The maximum COP of a refrigeration cycle operating between temperature limits of

TL and TH
TL 1
COPR , max  COPR , rev  COPR , Carnot  
TH  TL TH / TL  1
Actual refrigeration cycles are less efficient than the reversed Carnot cycle
because of the irreversibilities involved. But the conclusion we can draw from
Carnot COP relation that the COP is inversely proportional to the temperature
difference TH  TL is equally valid for actual refrigeration cycles.
The goal of a second–law or exergy analysis of a refrigeration system is to
determine the components that can benefit the most by improvements.
This is done identifying the locations of greatest exergy destruction and the
components with the lowest exergy or second–law efficiency.
Exergy destruction in a component can be determined directly from an exergy
balance or from entropy generation.
X&  T S&
dest 0 gen

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 12-5 Second–Law Analysis of Vapor–
Compression Refrigeration Cycle 2

Compressor :
X&  T S&
dest ,1 2 0 gen ,1 2  mT
& 0 ( s2  s1 )
X&recovered W&rev m&h2  h1  T0 ( s2  s1 )  xflow , 2  xflow ,1
 , comp  &   
X expended W&act ,in m&(h2  h1 ) h2  h1
X&dest,1 2
1 Condenser :
&
Wact ,in
 Q&H 
X dest , 23  T0 Sgen , 2 3  T0  m& s3  s1  
& &

 TH 

& 1  T0 
QH  
X&recovered X&QH  TH 
 , Cond  &  & & &
Figure 12-9 X expended X2  X3 X 2  X&3
The vapor–compression  T0 
refrigeration cycle &
QH 1  
considered in the  TH  X&dest,23
 1
second-–law analysis. m h2  h3  T0 ( s2  s3 ) 
& X&  X&
2 3

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 12-5 Second–Law Analysis of Vapor–
Compression Refrigeration Cycle 3

Expansion value :
X&dest,3 4  T0 S&gen,34  mT
& 0 ( s4  s3 )
X&recovered 0
 ,ExpValue  &  & &  0 or
X expended X 3  X 4
X&dest,3 4 X&3  X&4
 ,ExpValue 1 &  1 0
X expended X&3  X&4

Note that when TH  T0 , which is often the case for refrigerators,  ,cond  0
since there is no recoverable exergy in this case.

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 12-5 Second–Law Analysis of Vapor–
Compression Refrigeration Cycle 4

Evaporator :
 Q&L 
X dest , 41  T0 Sgen , 4 1  T0  m& s1  s3  
& &

 TL 
X&recovered X&QL Q&L T0  TL  / TL
 , Evap  &  & &
X expended 4X X 1 4X&  X&1

Q&L T0  TL  / TL X&dest,41

 1
m&h4  h1  T0 ( s4  s1 )  X&  X&
4 1

The exergy rate associated with

T T
X Q L  Q L 0 L the withdrawal of heat from the
TL low–temperature medium at
Figure 12-9 TL at a rate of QL
The vapor–compression
refrigeration cycle considered
in the second–law analysis.

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 12-5 Second–Law Analysis of Vapor–
Compression Refrigeration Cycle 5

This is equivalent to the power that can be produced by a Carnot heat engine
receiving heat from the environment at T0 and rejecting heat to the low
temperature medium at TL at a rate of QL .

W&rev ,in  W&min ,in  X&Q&L

Note that when TL  T0 , which is often the case for refrigerators,  ,evap  0
since there is no recoverable exergy in this case.

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 12-5 Second–Law Analysis of Vapor–
Compression Refrigeration Cycle 6

X&dest , total  X&dest ,1 2  X&dest , 2 3  X&dest ,34  X&dest , 4 1

X&dest , total  W&in  X&Q&L Total exergy destruction
Second-law (exergy) efficiency
X&Q&L W&min,in X&dest,total Q L T T
 ,cycle  &  &  1  & 
Win  X Q L  Q L 0 L
Win Win Win COPR TL
Q&L (T0  TL )
X&Q&L TL COPR COPR
 ,cycle  &   
Win Q&L TL COPR,rev
COPR (TH  TL )
Figure 12-9
The vapor–compression This second–law efficiency definition accounts for all
refrigeration cycle irreversibilities associated within the refrigerator,
considered in the including the heat transfers with the refrigerated space
second–law analysis. and the environment.

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 12-6 Selecting the Right Refrigerant 1

Several refrigerants may be used in refrigeration systems

such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), HFCs, HCFCs,
ammonia, hydrocarbons (propane, ethane, ethylene, etc.),
carbon dioxide, air (in the air–conditioning of aircraft), and
even water (in applications above the freezing point).
The industrial and heavy–commercial sectors use ammonia
(it is toxic).
R–11 is used in large–capacity water chillers serving A–C
systems in buildings.
R–134a (replaced R–12, which damages ozone layer) is
used in domestic refrigerators and freezers, as well as
automotive air conditioners.

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 12-6 Selecting the Right Refrigerant 2

R–22 is used in window air conditioners, heat pumps, air conditioners of

commercial buildings, and large industrial refrigeration systems, and
offers strong competition to ammonia.
R–22 is being replaced by alternatives such as R410A, R407C and R–32
because it is ozone–depleting.
CFCs allow more ultraviolet radiation into the earth’s atmosphere by
destroying the protective ozone layer and thus contributing to the
greenhouse effect that causes global warming. Fully halogenated C FCs
(such as R–11, R–12, and R–115) do the most damage to the ozone
layer.
Refrigerants that are friendly to the ozone layer have been developed.
Two important parameters that need to be considered in the selection of
a refrigerant are the temperatures of the two media (the refrigerated
space and the environment) with which the refrigerant exchanges heat.

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 12-6 Selecting the Right Refrigerant 3

Refrigerant Category Ozone Depletion Global Warming

Potential (ODP) Potential (GWP)
Ammonia 0 0
R–11 CF C 1.0 4660
R–12 CF C 1.0 10,200
R–22 HCF C 0.055 1760
R–134a HF C 0 1300
R–407C HF C 0 1775
R–410A HF C 0 2090
R–32 HF C 0 677

Table 12-1
Ozone depletion and global warming potentials of some common refrigerants.

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 12-7 Heat Pump Systems 1

The most common energy source for heat pumps is atmospheric air (air–
to–air systems).
Water–source systems usually use well water and ground–source
(geothermal) heat pumps use earth as the energy source. They typically
have higher COPs but are more complex and more expensive to install.
Both the capacity and the efficiency of a heat pump fall significantly at
low temperatures.
Therefore, most air–source heat pumps require a supplementary heating
system such as electric resistance heaters or a gas furnace.
Heat pumps are most competitive in areas that have a large cooling load
during the cooling season and a relatively small heating load during the
heating season.
In these areas, the heat pump can meet the entire cooling and heating
needs of residential or commercial buildings.

© McGraw Hill 20
 12-7 Heat Pump Systems 2

Figure 12-11
A heat pump can be used to heat a house in winter and to cool it in summer.

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© McGraw Hill 21
 12-8 Innovative Vapor–Compression
Refrigeration Systems 1

The simple vapor–compression refrigeration cycle is the most widely used

refrigeration cycle, and it is adequate for most refrigeration applications.
The ordinary vapor–compression refrigeration systems are simple, inexpensive,
reliable, and practically maintenance-free.
However, for large industrial applications efficiency, not simplicity, is the major
concern.
Also, for some applications the simple vapor–compression refrigeration cycle is
inadequate and needs to be modified.
For moderately and very low temperature applications some innovative
refrigeration systems are used. The following cycles will be discussed:
• Cascade refrigeration systems.
• Multistage compression refrigeration systems.
• Multipurpose refrigeration systems with a single compressor.
• Liquefaction of gases.

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 12-8 Innovative Vapor–Compression
Refrigeration Systems 2

Cascade Refrigeration Systems

Some industrial applications require moderately low
temperatures, and the temperature range they involve may
be too large for a single vapor–compression refrigeration
cycle to be practical. The solution is cascading.
Cascading improves the COP of a refrigeration system.
Some systems use three or four stages of cascading.

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 12-8 Innovative Vapor–Compression
Refrigeration Systems 3

m A h2  h3
mA (h5  h8 )  mB (h2  h3 )  
m B h5  h8
Q&L m&B (h1  h4 )
COPR , cascade  
&
Wnet ,in m&A (h6  h5 )  m&B (h2  h1 )

Figure 12-12
A two–stage cascade
refrigeration system with the
same refrigerant in both stages.

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© McGraw Hill 24
 12-8 Innovative Vapor–Compression
Refrigeration Systems 4

Multistage Compression When the fluid used throughout the cascade

Refrigeration Systems refrigeration system is the same, the heat
exchanger between the stages can be replaced by
a mixing chamber (called a flash chamber) since it
has better heat transfer characteristics.

Figure 12-14
A two–stage compression
refrigeration system with a
flash chamber.

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© McGraw Hill 25
 12-8 Innovative Vapor–Compression
Refrigeration Systems 5

Multistage Some applications require refrigeration at more than

Compression one temperature. A practical and economical approach
Refrigeration is to route all the exit streams from the evaporators to a
Systems with a single compressor and let it handle the compression
Single Compressor process for the entire system.

Figure 12-16
Schematic and T–s
diagram for a
refrigerator–freezer
unit with one
compressor.

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© McGraw Hill 26
 12-8 Innovative Vapor–Compression
Refrigeration Systems 6

Liquefaction of Gases
Many important scientific and engineering processes at cryogenic temperatures
(below about −100°C) depend on liquefied gases including the separation of
oxygen and nitrogen from air, preparation of liquid propellants for rockets, the study
of material properties at low temperatures, and the study of superconductivity.
At temperatures above the critical-point value, a substance exists in the gas phase
only.
The critical temperatures of helium, hydrogen, and nitrogen (three commonly used
liquefied gases) are −268, −240, and −147°C, respectively.
Therefore, none of these substances exist in liquid form at atmospheric conditions.
Furthermore, low temperatures of this magnitude cannot be obtained by ordinary
refrigeration techniques.
Storage and transportation of large quantities of natural gas, oxygen, hydrogen (an
energy carrier), and other gases can be achieved by liquefying these gases at very
low temperatures.
Several innovative cycles are used for the liquefaction of gases.
© McGraw Hill 27
 12-8 Innovative Vapor–Compression
Refrigeration Systems 7

Figure 12-17
Linde–Hampson system for liquefying gases.

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© McGraw Hill 28
 12-9 Gas Refrigeration Cycles 1

The reversed Brayton cycle (the gas refrigeration cycle) can be used for
refrigeration.
qL  h1  h4
qL qL
wtrub , out  h3  h4 COPR  
wnet , in wcomp , in  wtrub , out
wcomp ,in  h2  h1

Figure 12-19
Simple gas refrigeration cycle.

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© McGraw Hill 29
 12-9 Gas Refrigeration Cycles 2

The gas refrigeration cycles have lower COPs relative to the vapor–compression
refrigeration cycles or the reversed Carnot cycle.
The reversed Carnot cycle consumes a fraction of the net work (area 1A3B) but
produces a greater amount of refrigeration (triangular area under B1).

Figure 12-20
A reversed Carnot cycle produces more
refrigeration (area under B1) with less work input
(area 1A3B).

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© McGraw Hill 30
 12-9 Gas Refrigeration Cycles 3

Despite their relatively low C OPs, the gas refrigeration cycles

involve simple, lighter components, which make them suitable for
aircraft cooling, and they can incorporate regeneration.

Figure 12-21
An open–cycle aircraft cooling
system.

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© McGraw Hill 31
 12-9 Gas Refrigeration Cycles 4

Without regeneration, the lowest turbine inlet temperature is T0 , the temperature

of the surroundings or any other cooling medium.
With regeneration, the high-pressure gas is further cooled to T4 before expanding
in the turbine.
Lowering the turbine inlet temperature automatically lowers the turbine exit
temperature, which is the minimum temperature in the cycle.
Extremely low temperatures can be achieved by repeating regeneration process.

Figure 12-22
Gas refrigeration
cycle with
regeneration.

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© McGraw Hill 32
 12-10 Absorption Refrigeration Systems 1

Absorption refrigeration is
economic when there is a
source of inexpensive thermal
energy at a temperature of 100
to 200°C.
Some examples include
geothermal energy, solar
energy, and waste heat from
cogeneration or process steam
plants, and even natural gas
when it is at a relatively low
price.

Figure 12-24
Ammonia absorption refrigeration cycle.

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© McGraw Hill 33
 12-10 Absorption Refrigeration Systems 2

• Absorption refrigeration systems (A RS) involve the absorption of a

refrigerant by a transport medium.
• The most widely used system is the ammonia–water system, where
ammonia (NH 3 ) serves as the refrigerant and water (H 2 O) as the
transport medium.
• Other systems include water–lithium bromide and water–lithium
chloride systems, where water serves as the refrigerant. These
systems are limited to applications such as A–C where the minimum
temperature is above the freezing point of water.
• Compared with vapor–compression systems, A RS have one major
advantage: A liquid is compressed instead of a vapor and as a result
the work input is very small (on the order of one percent of the heat
supplied to the generator) and often neglected in the cycle analysis.

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 12-10 Absorption Refrigeration Systems 3

• ARS are often classified as heat–driven systems.

• ARS are much more expensive than the vapor–
compression refrigeration systems.
• They are more complex and occupy more space, they are
much less efficient thus requiring much larger cooling
towers to reject the waste heat, and they are more difficult
to service since they are less common.
• Therefore, ARS should be considered only when the unit
cost of thermal energy is low and is projected to remain
low relative to electricity.
• ARS are primarily used in large commercial and industrial
installations.

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 12-10 Absorption Refrigeration Systems 4

Desired output QL QL
COPabsorption   
Required input Qgen  Wpump Qgen

The COP of actual absorption refrigeration systems is usually

less than 1.
Air–conditioning systems based on absorption refrigeration,
called absorption chillers, perform best when the heat
source can supply heat at a high temperature with little
temperature drop.

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 12-10 Absorption Refrigeration Systems 5

 T0 
W   th , revQgen  1   Qgen
 Ts 
 TL 
QL  COPR , revW   W
 T0  TL 
QL  T0  TL 
COPrev , absorption   1   
Qgen  Ts  T0  TL 

QL
COPrev , absorption    th , rev COPR , rev
Qgen
 T0  TL 
 1   
 Ts  T0  TL 
Figure 12-25
Determining the maximum COP of an
absorption refrigeration system.
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© McGraw Hill 37
 Summary
• Refrigerators and Heat Pumps.
• The Reversed Carnot Cycle.
• The Ideal Vapor–Compression Refrigeration Cycle.
• Actual Vapor–Compression Refrigeration Cycle.
• Second–law Analysis of Vapor–Compression Refrigeration
Cycle.
• Selecting the Right Refrigerant.
• Heat Pump Systems.
• Innovative Vapor–Compression Refrigeration Systems.
• Gas Refrigeration Cycles.
• Absorption Refrigeration Systems.
© McGraw Hill 38
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