HISTORY AND SCOPE OF MICROBIOLOGY

•Men and women who contributed to the

development of Microbiology
•In science the credit goes to the one who convinced
the world, not to the one who first had the idea,
• Who developed a technique, a tool, or a concept
that was generally adopted, or
•who explained their findings so clearly or
dramatically that the science grew and prospered
 Scope of Microbiology
• Microbiology is the study of living organisms of
microscopic size, hence can not be seen with unaided
eyes
• As microbes are invisible to the unaided eye, direct
observation of microorganisms had to await the
development of the microscope.
• Technological advances have resulted in the
development of studies in Agricultural microbiology,
Aquatic microbiology, Industrial microbiology, Medical
microbiology, Space microbiology, Environmental
microbiology, Food microbiology etc
 HISTORY OF MICROBIOLOGY

Leeuwenhoek’s microscope, its use and his drawings of animalcules.

Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)
A Dutch draper, and haberdasher of Delft, Netherlands who wanted to
observe the weave of fine cloth
• His microscope consisted of a biconvex lens held in a
metal frame which magnified up to 200-300 times.
Using the instruments, he examined water from pools,
tartar from the teeth, faeces from dysentery patient and
so on. He was able to see substances he called
“animalcules”- tiny organisms, which he described as
spherical, cigarette-shaped, or spiral in form, some of
which were in rapid motion. The drawings he made are
still valid till now, which shows that what he actually saw
were bacteria, protozoan and other microorganisms. He
wrote 125 letters within 40 years that were translated
into English language and reported in the “Transaction of
the Royal society of London”
 Development of microscopes

Leeuwenhoek’s
Hooke’s
Modern
 The controversy regarding “spontaneous
generation” in food spoilage
The belief that living forms sprang from non-living matter
proponents: putrefaction is a result of chemical events
opponents: putrefaction is caused by “germs”

Francesco Redi – 1668 Showed that flies were responsible for

maggots found on the surface of rotting meat.
John Needham –1748 organic infusions spoiled in stoppered bottles
Abbe Lazzaro Spellanzani—1765 boiled the organic infusions,
infusions remained “barren” for a long time unless the seal was
broken
Aristotle, Charlton Bastian, Buffon and John Needham all supported
spontaneous generation.
Louis Pasteur –1861—trained as a scientist and used “scientific method” to address the
issue.
Spontaneous Generation (Abiogenesis)
From earliest times, people had believed in
spontaneous generation (abiogenesis) that living
organisms could develop from nonliving matter.
Even great Aristotle (384-322 BC) thought animal
could originate from the soil. This view was finally
challenged by the Italian physician Francesco Redi
(1626-1697) and proved that gauze placed over jar
containing meat prevented maggots forming the
meat. Similar experiments by others helped
discredit the theory for larger organisms.
Evidence supporting spontaneous generation
Some proposed that microorganisms arose by spontaneous
generation though larger organisms did not. John Needham
(1713-1781 the English priest) in 1745, published
experiments purporting the spontaneous generation
(abiogenesis) of microorganisms in putrescible fluids. Felix
Pouchet (1859), the French naturalist, claimed to have
carried out experiments conclusively proving that microbial
growth could occur without air contamination. This claim
provoked Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) to settle the matter
once and for all.
Evidence against Spontaneous generation
Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729-1799), an Italian priest and
naturalist opposed this view who boiled beef broth for an
hour, sealed the flasks, and observed no formation of
microbes. Franz Schulze (1815-1873), Theodore Schwann
(1810-1882), Georg Friedrich Schroder and Theodor von
Dusch attempted to counter such arguments.

Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) settled the matter once and

for all. In a series of classic experiments, Pasteur proved
conclusively that all forms of life, even microbes, arose
only from their like and not de novo with his classical
experiment using flasks with long narrow gooseneck
 Scientific Method
1. STATE THE PROBLEM
2. FORM A HYPOTHESIS AFTER GATHERING ALL
INFORMATION ON THE TOPIC
3. DEVISE EXPERIMENTS TO TEST THE VALIDITY OF
THE HYPOTHESIS
4. OBSERVE RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENT
5. INTERPRET THE DATA
6. DRAW CONCLUSIONS
7. ALWAYS CAREFULLY DOCUMENT DESIGN AND
RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENT!!!

Louis Pasteur –1861—trained as a scientist and used

“scientific method” to address the issue.
GOLDEN AGE OF MICROBIOLOGY (1854-1914)
For about 60 years, beginning with the work of
Pasteur, there was an explosion of discoveries in
microbiology. The period from 1854 to 1914 has
been appropriately named the Golden Age of
Microbiology. During this period, rapid advances,
spearheaded mainly by Pasteur and Robert Koch,
led to the establishment of microbiology
as a science.
 Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)
Louis Pasteur was a French chemist and microbiologist who in 1864 ended the
controversial concept of spontaneous generation, which states that living
things can originate spontaneously from the soil, plants, or other unlike
animals. He prepared a flask with a long, narrow gooseneck opening. The
nutrients solution was heated in the flask, and air-untreated and unfiltered-
could pass in or out; but the germs settled in the gooseneck, and no microbes
in the solution. Pasteur demonstrated that bacteria were trapped in the
curved neck of the flask by showing that as long as the flask with the boiled
broth remained upright no decay occurred. But when the flask was tipped
causing the broth to enter the neck and then set upright, the broth quickly
showed signs of bacterial growth. He concluded that his flask would yield no
sign of life that microbes originate from parent like themselves and not
spontaneous generation from unrelated matter. These experiments were
important pieces of evidence supporting the idea of “Germ Theory of
Disease”, putting an end to the previous concept of “Spontaneous
Generation”.
Germ theory of disease states that many diseases are caused by
microorganisms, small organisms, too small to see without magnification,
invade humans, animals, and other living hosts.
 Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)

Louis Pasteur’s experiment showed that the spoilage of liquid was caused
by particles in the air rather than the air itself.
 Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)

•He studied the methods and processes involved in wine and beer
production and isolated microorganisms that were associated with
fermentation (both desirable and undesirable).

•suggested that the undesirable types of microbes might be removed by

heating not enough to hurt the flavour of the fruit juice, but enough to
destroy very high percentage of the microbial population.

•He found that holding the juice at a temperature of 62.8 oC (145 oF) for
half an hour did the partial sterilization. This is now referred to as
“pasteurisation”, which is widely used in diary and fermentation industries.
•Pasteur was also able to isolate the parasite causing silkworm disease after
several years of investigation and also showed that the disease could be
controlled by using only healthy disease free caterpillars for breeding stock
 Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)
“Father of bacteriology and immunology”

His discovery of
pasteurization, lead
Pasteur to introduce the
*Developed the germ “germ theory of disease”
theory in 1798
*Also developed
in 1864. Pasteur stated
vaccine that diseases are caused
against anthrax. by the growth of microbes
*Pasteurization
technique
in the body and not by
*Developed the germ sins, bad character, or
theory poverty, etc.
of disease
 John Tyndall (1820-1893)
• John Tyndall was a renowned
physicist born in Leighlinbridge,
County Carlow, Ireland. He was • demonstrated that dust
famous for the discoveries of carries microorganisms
diamagnetism, infrared radiation • – showed that if dust was
among others. absent, nutrient broths
• In the field of biology, he proved that remained sterile, even if
dust carried the germs. He designed directly exposed to air
a box (a square wooden box with a • – also provided evidence for
couple of glass windows on it), which the existence of
now generally called “Biosafety exceptionally heat-resistant
Chamber”, to show that if no dust forms of bacteria
was present, sterile broth remained • Final blow to theory of
free of microbial growth for
spontaneous generation
indefinite periods
Tyndall’s biosafety
cabinet
•He made a box and coated the inside walls and floor of the box
with glycerine, a sticky syrup. He found that after a few days‘ the
air inside the box was entirely particulate-free when examined
with strong light beams through the glass windows.
•The various floating-matter particulates had all ended up getting
stuck to the walls or settling on the sticky floor. However, in the
optically pure air there were no signs of any "germs" (i.e. no signs
of floating microorganisms).
•Tyndall sterilised some meat-broths by simply boiling them, and
then compared what happened when he let these meat-broths sit
in the optically pure air, and in ordinary air. The broths sitting in
the optically pure air remained free of bad smell and taste after
many months while the ones in ordinary air started to become
putrid after a few days.
•This demonstration extended Louis Pasteur’s earlier
demonstrations of the presence of micro-organisms before
 Tyndall
•In1876, Tyndall failed to consistently reproduce the result. Some of
his supposedly heat-sterilized broths rotted in the optically pure air.
•He later found viable bacterial spores (endospores) in supposedly
heat-sterilized broths. He discovered the broths had been
contaminated with dry bacterial spores from hay in the laboratory.
•All bacteria are killed by simple boiling, except that bacteria have a
spore form that can survive boiling
•Tyndall found a way to eradicate the bacterial spores by boiling and
cooling serially in a process that came to be known as
"Tyndallisation".
•Tyndallisation historically was the earliest known effective way to
destroy bacterial spores
John Tyndall (1820-1893) showed that hay had
contaminated his lab with an incredible kind of living
organism.

Tyndall’s contributions
In 1876 discovered that there were two different types
of bacteria.
a) Heat sensitive or heat labile forms (vegetative cells)
easily destroyed by boiling
b) Heat resistant types known as an endospore
Tyndall demonstrated that alternate process of heating
& cooling if repeated five times, can kill all the
endospores.
This is known as Sterilization process or
Tyndallization
 Ferdinand Cohn (1877)
Ferdinand Cohn (1877) demonstrated the resistant
forms as small, refractile endospores, a special stage in
the life cycle of hay bacillus (Bacillus subtilis).
Since spores are readily sterilized in the presence of
moisture at 120ᵒC, the autoclave, which uses steam
under pressure, became hallmark of the bacteriology.
This German botanist, discovered the evidence of heat-
resistant forms as spores. Spores as well as vegetative
forms were responsible for the appearance of
microbial life in inadequately heated infusions.
 Robert Koch (1843-1910)

Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine (1905) for his investigation and discoveries in relation to
Tuberculosis
A German physician and pioneering microbiologist. As the founder of
modern bacteriology, he is known for his role in identifying the specific
causative agents of tuberculosis, cholera, and anthrax and for giving
experimental support for the concept of infectious disease. Robert
Koch discovered the typical bacilli, the blood of cattle that died of
anthrax. He grew the bacteria in cultures, examined them and sure to
be pure culture, injected them into other animals to see if these
became infected and developed clinical symptoms of anthrax
 In 1860 developed an elaborate technique to
isolate & identify specific Pathogens that cause
specific diseases. He isolated the anthrax
bacterium.

In 1876 Robert Koch proved the “germ

theory of disease” by showing that
bacteria actually caused disease. Koch
established a sequence of experimental
steps for directly relating a specific
microbe to a specific disease called
KOCH’S POSTULATES
 This led to the establishment of
Koch’s postulate:
1. A specific organism can always be found in
association with a given disease
2. The organism can be isolated and grown in pure
culture in the laboratory
3. The pure culture will produce the disease when
inoculated into a susceptible animal
4. It is possible to recover the organism in pure
culture from the experiment infected animal.
 Koch’s Postulates
• The causative (etiological) agent i. e. microbe
must be present in all affected organisms but
absent in healthy individuals
• The agent must be capable of being isolated and
cultured in pure form from the affected or
diseased organism
• When the cultured agent is introduced to a
healthy, experimental and susceptible
organism, the same disease must occur
• The same causative agent must be isolated
again from the affected host (experimental
Koch’s phenomenon: Koch (1890) had noticed
that when the tubercle bacillus or its protein
was injected into a guinea pig already infected
with the bacillus, an exaggerated response took
place—a hypersensitivity reaction known as
Koch’s phenomenon.
 Koch’s work
Koch’s work assisted the contributions of other people e.g.
– Agar (with the help of Fannie and Walter Hesse) Walter
Hesse (1846-1911): Koch Used Agar as a solidifying agent to
harden media. Agar is extracted from seaweeds/ red algae.
-Petri dish (Richard Petri another of Koch’s assistants)
( 1852-1921): Developed and used agar dish to provide a
large area to grow microbes.
- methods for isolating microorganisms- pure
-Techniques for Studying Microbial Pathogens – culture,
anthrax, Tuberculosis and cholera
-Christian Gram ( 1853-1935): Staining method that
demonstrated bacteria and distinguish between Gram
positive and Gram negative bacteria.
 Culturing of
microbes

S. aureus in TSA
C. albicans on SDA agar

Culturing in Microbiology is the growing of microbes on

artificial media in the laboratory. Viruses are obligate
parasites and cannot be cultured on such media. Some
bacteria are still unculturable because of their unique
nutritional or physiological requirements. A pure culture
has only one microbe on the culturing plate (Media inside E. coli in MacConkey agar
petri dish). A mixed culture has more than one microbe.
 Development of Culture Media
• Why culturing microbes?

– To enable the isolation of pure cultures (only one type of

organism)
• Especially important during Koch’s period
• Gelatin not good as solidifying agent for culture media because it
melts at >28 ºC and some bacteria hydrolyze it with enzymes.

• Fannie Hesse, the wife of one of Koch’s assistants, proposed using

agar

Benefits of using agar as a thickening agent for microbial culture are:

- Agar is not digested by most bacteria
– It melts at 100 ºC
– Solidify at about 45ºC
– It does not affect the nutritional value of the culture medium
– Only a little is required for thickening e.g. 2 %
Contributions of Robert Koch
1. Staining techniques: He described methods for the easy microscopic
examination of bacteria in dried, fixed films stained with aniline dyes (1877).
2. Hanging drop method: He was the first to use hanging drop method by studying
bacterial
motility.
3. Methods for isolating pure cultures of bacteria: He devised a simple method
for isolating pure cultures of bacteria by plating out mixed material on a solid
culture medium and to isolate pure cultures of pathogens.
4. Discoveries of the causal agents of anthrax (1876), tuberculosis (1882), and
cholera (1883).
5. Koch’s postulates: It was necessary to introduce criteria for proving the claims
that a microorganism isolated from a disease was indeed causally related to it.

Robert Koch proved that microorganisms cause disease. Koch used the criteria
proposed by his former teacher, Jacob Henle (1809-1885), to establish the
relationship between Bacillus anthracis and anthrax and published his findings in
1876. His criteria for proving the causal relationship between a microorganism and
a specific disease are known as Koch’s postulates (1876), which are used today to
prove that a particular microorganism causes a particular disease
 Fanny Hesse (1850-1934)

Fanny Hesse (born Angelina Fanny Elishemius in New York)

alongside her husband, Walter Hesse suggested use of agar as a
solidifying material for microbiological media.
In 1881, while working for her husband as a technician in the
laboratory of German physician and microbiologist Robert Koch,
Hesse suggested that agar was preferable to gelatin for cultivating
bacteria.
This led to Koch using agar to cultivate the bacteria that cause
tuberculosis. While Koch, in an 1882 paper on tuberculosis bacilli,
mentioned he used agar instead of gelatin, he did not credit Fanny
or Walther Hesse, or mention why he made the switch.
Fanny Hesse's suggestion never resulted in financial benefit for the
Hesse family.
The golden age/era of Microbiology
The period from 1860 to 1900 is often
named the Golden Age of Microbiology.
During this period, rapid advances, spear-
headed by Louis Pasteur and Robert
Koch, led to the establishment of
microbiology as a science. During this
period, many scientist discovered and
proposed numerous useful novel ideas.
Golden era of microbiology started with the
work of Louis Pasteur (France) and Robert Koch
(Germany).
From the late 1800s to early 1900s is known to be the golden age of
microbiology.

So the story begins with invention of light microscope.

Now even small minute particles can be seen and people became curious.

The two main scientists that contributed a lot to this field were Louis
Pasteur and Robert Koch.
Louis Pasteur disapproved the spontaneous generation theory, invented
vaccines, gave the world a very important process called pasteurization.
Robert Koch worked mostly with infectious bacteria. Discovered disease
causing bacteria. Gave the Koch postulates which helped in establishing a
relationship between the microbes and infection.

Discovery of agar made it possible to grow bacteria in lab easily.

Joseph Lister used antiseptic for the first time.
Development of microbiology led to development in various fields like
genetics, immunology, medicine etc.
 Edward Jenner • 1796 – First
vaccine (smallpox)
Jenner had observed that milkmaids exposed to cowpox never developed the
serious smallpox, and thus hypothesized that exposure to cowpox somehow led
to protection against smallpox. In order to prove his point, he inoculated a boy
called James Phipps first with cowpox material, and later with smallpox- causing
material. The boy did not get smallpox.
 Edward Jenner
• Edward Jenner (ca. 1798): Developed the first
Vaccine and used a vaccination procedure to
protect individuals from smallpox

• Vaccination:
– Inoculation of healthy individuals with weakened (or
attenuated) forms of microorganisms, that would
otherwise cause disease, to provide protection, or
active immunity from disease upon later exposure.
In the 1860’s, an English surgeon named Joseph Lister was
searching for a way to prevent microorganisms infecting
wounds, as deaths from post surgery infections were
Joseph Lister
frequent and accounted to about 45% of the total deaths.
Lister used dilute solution of phenol/carbolic acid to soak
surgical dressings and by performing surgery under a spray
of disinfectant to prevent airborne infections. His
experiments were the origin of the present-day aseptic
techniques used to prevent infections.

• 1867 Antiseptic Surgery ( Carbolic acid- Phenol)

• Joseph Lister (1827 - 1912)
– developed a system of surgery designed to
prevent microorganisms from entering wounds
– phenol (Carbolic Acid) sprayed in air around
surgical incision
– Decreased number of post-operative infections
in patients
– his published findings (1867) transformed the
practice of surgery
In the 1890’s Ehrlich proposed a theory
of immunity in which antibodies were
responsible for immunity (Antitoxin). In
addition, he is known as the father of
modern chemotherapy. He speculated
about some “magic bullet” that would
selectively find and destroy pathogens
but not harm the host (Selective
Toxicity). He also develop a staining
procedure to identify tubercle bacilli.
Emil Adolf von Behring 1854-1917
 Winogradsky Sergei N. & M.W. Beijerinck (1851-1931)

They showed that microbes play important roles in cycling of Carbon, Nitrogen,
and Sulphur.

They discovered a unique class of bacteria called chemoautotrophic bacteria

which can grow in complete inorganic environments getting energy by oxidation
of reduced inorganic compounds and carbon from carbon dioxide. Important
bacteria in this category are sulfur bacteria which oxidize inorganic S compounds
and nitrifying bacteria which oxidize inorganic N compounds. They also
developed enrichment techniques to culture specific bacteria and their isolation.

Contributions of Winogradsky include introduction to microbiological practice

the method of continuous flow cultivation in its microscopic version that was
applied to cultivation of sulphur bacteria, and consequently contributed to the
discovery of chemolithotrophy.
He determined the physiology and growth stoichiometry of chemolithotrophic
bacteria establishing the growth dynamics of nitrification.
In 1892, a Russian scientist Dmitri Iwanovski filtered infectious
extract from tobacco plant infected with mosaic disease. To his
surprise he found that filtrate was still fully infectious. This
specific discovery was confirmed soon and within few years,
many other plant and animal diseases were found to be caused
by some submicroscopic agents retained in the filtrates passed
through bacterial filters. A new class of infectious agents was
discovered and these were called ‘viruses’ (from latin word
virus, meaning a slimy liquid or a poison). It was later found
that these agents are different from cellular organisms already
known in structure and development. Frederick Loeffler and P
Frosch (1898) found that Foot and Mouth disease (FMDV) is
caused by a virus. Bacterial viruses were independently
discovered later by F.W. Twort and F. d’ Herelle (1917). Stanley
(1935) crystallized virus and found that it is made up of protein
and nucleic acid.
 ALEXANDER FLEMING

• 1929 Discovery of Penicillin (first

antibiotic)

In 1928 Fleming observed that the growth of the bacterium

Staphylococcus aureus was inhibited in the areas surrounding the
colony of a mold that had contaminated a Petri plate. The mold
was identified as Penicillium notatum, and its active compound
was named penicillin.
The modern era of antibiotics developed only after Gerhard
Domagk (1895-1964) found that prontosil (the forerunner of
sulfonamides) had a dramatic effect on streptococcal
infection in 1935. Sir Alexander Fleming (1881-1955) made
accidental discovery that the fungus Penicillium notatum
produces a substance which destroys staphylococci. In the
1940s, Florey and Chain and their associates demonstrates
its clinical value. This was the beginning of the antibiotics
era. Selman Waksman exploited the potential for antibiotic
production among soil microorganisms in the 1940s. Within
25 years of these discoveries, most of the major groups of
antimicrobial agents had been recognized and more recent
developments have chiefly involved chemical alteration of
existing molecules.
Caution: Be careful with microbes in the lab. They can infect the researcher too
 CA = causal agent
HUS = Haemolytic uremic syndrome, PUD = peptic ulcer disease
• Oswald T. Avery, Colin M. MacLeod, and
Maclyn McCarty (1944)
– Following initial studies by Frederick Griffith
(1928) they provided evidence that
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was the genetic
material and carried genetic information
during transformation
– Worked with Streptococcus pneumoniae
(rough and smooth)
WATSON and CRICK, FRANKLIN, and WILKINS

In 1953 Watson and Crick determined the

structure of DNA. They used their research,
together with the research of Franklin and
Wilkins to determine the structure of the DNA
molecule.
• Ruska (1938) – First Electron
Microscope

• The electron microscope is capable of magnifying

biological specimens up to one million times. To
study detail structures of viruses.

These computer enhanced images of

1. smallpox, 2. herpes simplex, and 3. mumps
are magnified, respectively, 150,000, 150,000
and 90,000 times.
 Light Microscopy and Types of Microscopes

• Microscope that uses visible

light to observe specimen.
This is the common types in the
labs.
• Hooke’s compound microscope
had more than 1 lens
• The Compound Light
Microscope can be
- monocular- 1 eyepiece,
binocular-2
• For more information on
microscope parts and their
functions, attend the practical
sessions
The type of microscopy most commonly used by
students is the bright field. Light (from an inbuilt
source) is aimed at a lens system called a substage
condenser. The condenser focuses the light onto an
area the same size as the objective lens. The
condenser has an iris diaphragm that is used to
control the diameter of the beam of light passing
through the condenser. The light then passes through
the specimen and into the objective lens followed by
the eyepiece lens to produce a magnified image. The
objective lens is the one closest to the specimen.
Most of the microscopes used at school and college
have four objective lenses (usually with
magnifications of x4, x10, x40 and x100).
 Techniques of Light Microscopy
• Preparation of Specimens for the Light
Microscope:
• 1) Wet Mounts- drop of medium with
microbes is spread on a slide
• 2) Smears- microbes from a loopful of
medium are spread on a slide, then heat
fixed to kill microbes
- heat fixation-
 Principles of Staining
• Stain- dye that binds to a cellular structure
and gives it color
• + charge-basic= methylene blue, crystal violet,
safranin and malachite green
• - charge-acidic= eosin and picric acid
• Simple stain uses single dye and reveals basic
cell shapes and structures
• Differential stain uses 2 or more dyes e.g.
Gram stain, Ziehl-Neelsen acid fast and spore
 Appearance under the microscope
• Gram Stained slides

Gram positive e.g.

Gram negative e. g. E. Bacillus
coli
 Gram + and - Organisms
• Gram + ( are what color? Purple)
– Cocci in clusters: Staphylococcus
– Cocci in chains: Streptococcus
– Bacillus: Bacillus anthracis
– Short rods: Mycobacterium
• Gram – (are what color?- Red)
– Rods: E. coli
– Diplococci: Neisseria
– Coccobacillus: Haemophilus, Bordetella
 Some examples of bacteria.
Note their shapes, names and Gram reaction color
 Further study
• Check: pdfdrive.com for free downloads of
general Microbiology textbooks where you
can read more on these scientists and their
contributions with dates.
ANY REWARD FOR THEIR WORK?

-Yes, above all, mankind is better because

of these scientists and their contributions
- Financial benefit for the scientist too
 Some Nobel prizes awarded in the subjects
related to Microbiology Research
A. Fleming, E.B. Chain & H.W. Florey- Discovery of Penicillin and
its therapeutic value 1945
M. Theiler- Development of vaccine against yellow fever 1951
S.A. Waksman - Discovery of streptomycin 1952
J.F. Enders, T.H. Weller & F. Robbins- Cultivations of poliovirus in
tissue culture 1954
D. Bovet- Discovery of the first antihistamine 1957
G.W. Beadle, E.I. Tatum & J. Lederberg- Microbial genetics 1958
S. Ochoa & A. Kornberg -Discovery of enzyme catalyzing nucleic
acid synthesis 1959
F.H.C. Crick Discoveries related to DNA 1962
F. Jacob, A. Lwoft & J. Monod- Discoveries about the regulation of
genes 1965
F.P. Rous- Discovery of cancer virus 1966
R.W. Holley, H.G. Khorana & M.W. Nirenberg- Deciphering of the
genetic code 1968
M. Delbruck, A.D. Hershey & S.E. Luria -Discoveries concerning
viruses and viral infection of cells 1969
G. Edelman & R. Porter- Research on the structure of antibodies
1972
H. Temin, D. Baltimore & R. Dulbecco- Discovery of RNA
dependent DNA synthesis by RNA tumor viruses; reproduction of
DNA tumour virus 1975
B. Blumberg & D.C. Gajdusek- Mechanism and dissemination of
hepatitis B virus; research on slow virus infection 1976
R. Yalow -Development of the Radio immuno assay technique
1977

H.O. Smith, D. Nathans & W. Arber- Discovery of restriction

enzymes and their application to the problem of molecular
genetics 1978 /1981
B. Benaclavaf, G. Snell & J. Dausset- Discovery of the
histocompatibilty antigens 1980
P. Berg, W. Gilberg & F. Sanger -Development of DNA technique
(Berg); specially of DNA sequencing techniques 1981
A. Klug- Development of crystallographics electron microscopy
1982
2007 Mario R Capecchi, Oliver Smithies and Sir Martin J
Evans for Creation of knockout mice for stem cell research
2008 Luc Montagnier and Francoise Barre-Sinoussi, Herald zur
Hausen for Discovery of human immunodeficiency virus, Human
papillomaviruses causing cervical cancer
C. Milstein, G.J.F. Kohler & N.K. Jerne- Development of the
technique for formation of monoclonal antibodies; theoretical
work in immunology 1984
E. Ruska-Development of the transmission electron microscope
1986
S. Tonegawa-The genetic principle for generation of antibody
diversity 1987

J.M. Bishop & H.E. Varmus-Discovery of oncogenes 1989

S. Altman & T.R. Cech-Discovery of ribosome 1989
K.B. Mullis & M. Smith-For discovery of PCR technique and
development of site directed mutagenesis 1993
E. Lewis, C. Nusslein & E. Wieschans-Physiology of Genetics of
microbes 1995
S.B. Prussiner Discovery of prions 1997
 Who is next?

You and me!!!

The world is waiting for the
manifestations of our scientific
hard work