Logic

• Statements and Quantifiers

• Truth tables and Tautologies
• Conditional, Biconditional, and
Related Statements
 Statements
Is defined as declarative sentence (a simple
statement that is used to provide information
about something or state a fact.) that is either
true or false, but NOT both simultaneously,
Example: Determine whether each
sentence is a statement.
a. The Earth revolves around the Sun.
b. The Sun revolves around the Earth.
c. 1+2=3
d. How do you spell your name?
e. This statement is false.
A paradox, in the context of a statement or
proposition, refers to a seemingly contradictory
or self-defeating statement that, upon closer
examination, may reveal a deeper truth or
meaning. Paradoxes often challenge our
understanding of logic and can lead to thought-
provoking insights. They may highlight the
complexity of certain concepts or the limitations
of language and logic.
Negations
The sentence “Max has a car.” is a statement;
the negation of this statement is “Max does
not have a car.”

The negation of a true statement is false and

the negation of false statement is true.
Example: Write the negation of each
statement.
a. The Earth revolves around the Sun.
b. All students take mathematics in the
modern world.
c. Some students take Programming.
Example: Write the negation of each
statement.
a. The Earth revolves around the Sun.
Reasoning:
There are only two possible scenarios here.
-either the Earth revolves around the Sun, or
it doesn’t.
Example: Write the negation of
each statement.
b. All students take mathematics in
the modern world.

Reasoning:
The scenarios depend on how many
students there are. Let’s say for
example 3 Students.

Some in Logic means At least One

Example: Write the negation of
each statement.
C. Some students take Programming.

Solution:
No students take French

Some in Logic means Atleast One

Negation
Quantifiers
Quantifiers in Logical statement indicates quantity and when you
negate that, you have to take those quantifiers into consideration.

The words like all, each, every, and no(one) are called Universal
Quantifiers, because they describe characteristics that apply to
everyone.

Words and phrases such as some, there exist, and (for) at least one
are Existential Quantifiers, because they describe characteristics of
one or more individuals.
Notice that the negation of a universal quantifier involves an
existential one.

Statement Negation
All do. Some do not. (or “Not all do.”)
Some do. None do. (or “All do not.”)
None do. Some do.
Some don’t. All do.
Example: Write the negation of each statement. (Do
not use “It is not the case that…”)

a. No children like green beans.

b. Some children do not like ice cream.

Solution:
a. Some children like green beans.
b. All children like ice cream.
Inequality Symbols
Symbolism Meaning
a<b a is less than b
a>b a is greater than b
a≤b a is less than or equal to b
a≥b a is greater than or equal to b
Example: Forming Negations
Give a negation of each inequality. Do not use a slash
symbol.

a. p < 3
b. 3x – 2y ≥ 12

Solution:
c. p ≥ 3
d. 3x – 2y < 12
Negation of Inequalities
Statement Negation
a<b a≥b
a≤b a>b
Exercise: Forming Negation of Quantified
Statements
Form the negation of each statement.
a. Some cats have fleas.
b. Some cats do not have fleas.
c. No cats have fleas.
d. Is five pesos less than six pesos?
e. x < 7
f. x ≤ -11
g. x = 10
Compound Statements
A compound statement may be formed by
combining two or more statements.
The statements making up the compound
statement are called component statements.
Various connectives such as and, or, not, and if…
then, can be used in forming compound
statements.
Example: Use two of the statements provided to
form a compound statement using each of the
given connectives:
Mathematics is mental exercise.
Push-ups are physical exercise.
I will exercise.
a. and
b. or
c. but
d. if, then
Example: Compound Statements
Decide whether each statement is compound.
a) If Amanda said it, then it must be true.
b) The gun was made by Smith and Wesson.

In order to determine if you have a compound

statement, you need to know if you have two
simple statements being joined by a connectives.
Symbols
To simplify work with logic, we use symbols.
Statements are represented with letters, such as
p, q, or r, while several symbols for connectives
are shown below.
Connective Symbol Type of Statement

and ^ Conjunction

or v Disjunction

not ~ Negation
Example: Translating from Symbols to Words
Let p represent “ It is raining,” and let q represent “It is
March.” Write each symbolic statement in words.

a) p v q
b) ~q ^ p
c) ~(p ^ q)
Example: Translating from Symbols to Words
Let p represent “ The sky is blue,” and let q represent
“It is Summertime.” Write each symbolic statement in
words.

a) The sky is blue or it is not summertime.

b) It is not summertime, but the sky is blue.
c) It is not the case that it is summertime and the sky
is blue.
Truth Values of Conjunction (and ^), Disjunction
(or v)
Conjunction (and ^) Disjunction (or v) Not (~)

p q p^q p q pvq p ~p
T T T T T T T F
T F F T F T F T
F T F F T T
F F F F F F
Example: Finding the Truth Value
Let p represent the statement 4>1,
q represent the statement 12<9,
And r represents 0<1. Decide whether the statement is
true or false.

a) p ^ q.
b) p v q.
c) ~p ^ ~q
d) ~p v r
e) ~(p v r)
Truth Table
-list of all possible scenarios and the resulting
truth values.

Use the following standard format for 2 components

listing the possible truth values in p q
compound statements involving T T
two component statements.
T F
F T
F F
Example: Constructing a Truth Table
Construct the truth table for p^(~p v ~q)
p q

T T

T F

F T

F F

What if p is true and q is false?

Truth table for 3 components. 2^3(exponent
should be the number of components)
p q r
T T T
Half True
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
Half False
F F T
F F F
The Conditionals
A conditional statement is a compound statement
that uses the connective if…then.

The conditional is written with an arrow, so “if p

then q” is symbolized p q.

We read the above as “p implies q” or “if p then

q”. The statement p is the antecedent, while q is
the consequent.
Truth Table for Conditional, if p, then q
If p, then q The
conditional is
p q p q only False
T T T when the
antecedent is
T F F True but the
consequent is
F T T False.
F F T
Understanding Conditional is True
The statement, “If you score 100% on all your homework assignments, then
you will receive bonus points,” make a promise.
The statement is true if the promise is kept.
The statement is false if the promise is broken.

Determine whether the statement is true or false in each scenario.

Scenario 1: You complete all your homework, and you received the bonus
points. True
Scenario 2: You complete all your homework, but you didn’t received the
bonus points. False
Scenario 3: You didn’t complete all your homework, but you received the
bonus points anyway. True
Scenario 4: You didn’t complete all your homework, and you didn’t received
the bonus points anyway. True
Example: Determining whether a conditional is
true or false. T represents a true statement, F a
false statement.
a) T (4<2) b) (8=1) F
Tautology
A statement is that is always true, no matter what
the truth values of the components. They may be
checked by forming truth tables.

Example:
Use the truth table to demonstrate that the
compound statement is a tautology:
(p q) (~p v q)
Negation of the Conditionals
• Two statements are equivalent if they have all the same truth values.
• Two statements are negations of each other if they have the opposite truth values.

If p, then q If q, then q
p q p q p q q p
T T T T T T
T F F T F T
F T T F T F
F F T F F T
This are neither equivalent nor opposite, meaning we cannot negate a conditional by
stating a conditional. We need to change the statement to conjunction (and ^).
Example:
Using truth tables, determine whether each statement
is equivalent to p q, a negation of p q.

a) p ^ ~q - opposite
b) ~p v q – equivalent

Note: The negation of p q is p ^ ~q.

The conditional statement p q is equivalent to
the disjunction ~p v q.
Exercise: Negate the following statement
a) If the sky looks blue, then it is night time.
b) If Sir Raymart is a teacher, then he is a good
teacher.

Exercise: Write the statement as an equivalent

statement that does not use the if…then connective
a) If she has to wait, then she reads the sports section.
Writing a Conditional as a Disjunction
The conditional statement p q is
Equivalent to the disjunction ~p v q.
Example:
“If you do all your homework, then you will get
bonus points.”
Solution:
“You don’t do all your homework, or you do get a
bonus points.”
Converse, Inverse, and Contrapositive

Conditional p q If p, then q
Statement

Converse q p If q, then p
order reversed

Inverse ~p ~q I not p, then not q

“sign” changed

Contrapositive ~q ~p If not q, then not p

Order reversed and
“sign” changed
Example: Determining Related Conditional
Statements
Given the conditional Statement
If I live in Winconsin, then shovel snow, determine each of
the following:
a) The converse b) the inverse c) the contrapositive

Given the conditional statement: r ~q

Determine each of the following:
b) The converse b) the inverse c) the contrapositive
Equivalences
A conditional statement and its contrapositive are equivalent
p q ≡ ~q ~p

Note: When both the order and the sign are changed,
the statements are equivalent.

Similarly, the converse and inverse are equivalent

q p ≡ ~p ~q
If you understand logic, then you recognize the truth
If you don’t recognize the truth, then you don’t understand logic.
Alternative forms of “If p, then q”
The conditional p q can be translated in any of the
following ways.

If p, then q.
If p, q. q
is necessary for p.
p implies q. q if p.
p is sufficient for q.
All p are q.
p only if q.
Example: Rewording Conditional Statements
If p, then q. Write the statement in the form “if p, then q.”
a) You’ll be sorry if I go.
If p, q. b) Today is Sunday only if yesterday was Saturday.
p is sufficient for q. c) All Chemist wear lab coats.
p implies q. d) No person on the track is not running.
All p are q. Change to the equivalence statement of
“All person on the track is running.
p only if q.
Solution
q is necessary for p. e) If I go, then you’ll be sorry.
f) If today is Sunday, the Yesterday was Saturday.
q if p. g) If you are a chemist, then you wear a lab coat.
h) If a person is on the track, then the person is
running
Biconditional
In situations where p q and q p, we can combine the
statements into one, p q, called biconditional.

p q can be read as p only if q

q p can be read as p if q.

So, the biconditional, p q is read as p if and only if q, (often

abbreviated as p iff q).
Biconditional
Example: Let the statement p be, “I love that movie.”
Let the statement q be, “The Hulk is in that movie.”
Write the statement p q in words.

Solution:
I love that movie if and only if the Hulk is in it.
Biconditional
Now, let’s think about the conditions where Biconditional
would be true.

I love that movie if and only if the Hulk is in it.

Solution
This statement would be true in two situations:
1. I love the movie and the Hulk is in it. (True, True)
2. I don’t love the movie and the Hulk isn’t in it. (False,
False)
Truth Value Rule for Biconditionals
The biconditional p q, is only true if both components have
the same truth value.
This can be demonstrated by creating a truth a truth table for
(p q) ^ (q p), because that’s really biconditional really
represents, implications going both direction.
p q p q q p (p q) ^ (q p)
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T
Determine whether each biconditional statement is true or.
False.
a) 5+2=7 if and only if 3+2=5
b) 3=7 if and only if 4=3+1
c) 7+6=12 if and only if 9+7=11
Summary of connectives and rule.
• The negation of a statement has truth value opposite of
the statement
• The conjunction is true only when both statements are
true
• The disjunction is false only when both statement are
false
• The conditional is false only when the antecedent is true
but the consequent is false.
• The biconditional is true only when both statements
have the same value.
Analyzing Arguments with Truth Table
A logical argument is made up of premises
(assumptions, laws, rules, widely held ideas, or
observations) and a conclusion. Together, the premises
and conclusion make up the argument.

Example: An argument with 2 premises.

Premises
All rainy days are cloudy.
Today is not cloudy.
Conclusion (therefore) ∴Today is not rainy.
Analyzing Arguments with Truth Table
Example:
Identify the premises and the conclusion of the argument:
“Joey loves to watch movies. If Joey loves to watch movies,
then Carlota loves to jog. Therefore, Carlota loves to jog.”

Solution:
Premise 1: Joey loves to watch movies.
Premise 2: If Joey loves to watch movies, then Carlota loves
to jog.
Conclusion: Carlota loves to jog.
Valid and Invalid Arguments
An argument is valid if the fact that all the premises are true
forces the conclusion to be true.

An argument that is not valid is invalid. It is called fallacy.

Testing the Validity of an Argument with Truth Table
Step 1: Assign a letter to represent each component statement in the
argument.
Step 2: Express each premise and the conclusion symbolically.
Step 3: Form the symbolic statement of the entire argument by
writing the conjunction of all premises as the antecedent of a
conditional statement, and the conclusion of the argument as the
consequent.
Step 4: Complete the truth table for the conditional statement
formed in Step 3. If it is tautology, then the argument is valid;
otherwise it is invalid.
Example: Truth Table (Two Premises)
If the door is open, then I must close it.
The door is open.
I must close it.

Solution
Step 1: Let p represent “the door is open” and q represent “I
must close it.”
Step 2: p q [(p q)^(p)] q
p If the first premise is true and theirs is the connective
q “and” the second premise is true then this whole
thing would imply the conclusion q
Valid Argument Forms
Modus Modus Disjunctive Reasoning by
Ponens Tollens Syllogism Transitivity
p q p q pvq p q
p ~p ~p q r
q ~q q p r
Invalid Argument Forms (Fallacies)
Fallacy of the Fallacy of
Converse the Inverse
p q p q
q ~p
p ~q

Example: Decide whether the argument is valid or fallacy and give the form that
applies.
If the music is good, then I stay. The argument is ___________ by
I stay. _____________________.
The music is good.
Example: Truth Table (More Than Two Premises)
Determine whether the argument is valid or invalid.

If Pat goes skiing, then Amy stays at home. If Amy doesn’t

stay at home, the Cade will play video game. Cade will not
play video games. Therefore, Pat does not go skiing.

Solution:
p q
~q r
This leads to statement
~r [(p q) ^ (~q r) ^ r] p
~p