General Chemistry

Chem. 1012

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 2. Atoms, Molecules and Compounds
• Atoms
• The Greek philosopher Democritus (470–400 BC ) suggested
that all matter is composed of tiny, discrete, indivisible
particles that he called atoms.

• His ideas was based entirely on philosophical speculation.

• The first convincing argument for atoms was made in 1807 by

the English school teacher and chemist John Dalton.

• He made many measurements of the ratios of the masses of

elements that combine together to form the substances.
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• An atom contains:
 a very small nucleus composed of positively charged protons
and uncharged neutrons surrounded by a much larger
volume of space containing negatively charged electrons.

 The nucleus contains the majority of an atom’s mass because

protons and neutrons are much heavier than electrons,

 Though they have small mass electrons occupy almost all of

an atom’s volume.

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 The mass in grams of a single atom is much too small a number
for use a unit called atomic mass unit (amu) is used.
• One amu (u) is exactly 1/12 of the mass of one carbon-12
atom:

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 The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is its atomic
number (Z).

 The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is

called its mass number (A)

 When the numbers of these subatomic particles are not equal,

the atom is electrically charged and is called an ion.

 The charge of an atom is defined as follows:

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• An atom that gains one or more electrons will exhibit a negative charge
and is called an anion. Positively charged atoms called cations are
formed when an atom loses one or more electrons.

• Example:
• The iodine atoms are added as anions, and has a −1 charge and a mass
number of 127. Determine the numbers of protons, neutrons, and
electrons in one of these iodine anions.

• Solution
• The atomic number of iodine (53) tells us that a neutral iodine
atom contains 53 protons in its nucleus and 53 electrons outside
its nucleus. Because the sum of the numbers of protons and
neutrons equals the mass number, 127, the number of neutrons is
74 (127 − 53 74). Since the iodine is added as a − 1 anion, the
number of electrons is 54 [53 – (1–) 54].

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• Atoms with the same atomic number (belonging to the same
element) but with different mass numbers are called isotopes
of the element.

• All isotopes of an element have exactly the same atomic

number; i.e. they have the same number of protons and
electrons.

• An isotope is named by writing its mass number after the

name of the element, as in neon-20, neon-21, and neon-22.

• In symbolic representation the mass number is written as a

superscript to the left of the chemical symbol of the element,
as in 20Ne, 21Ne, and 22Ne.
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• Because isotopes of the same element have the same number
of protons and the same number of electrons, they have the
same chemical and physical properties.

 The atomic mass of a single atom is approximately equal to its

mass number (a whole number).

 The average masses of atoms of most elements are not whole

numbers because most elements exist naturally as mixtures of
two or more isotopes.

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• Example
1. Determine the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in
each of the following species. Are the members within each pair
isotopes?

2. The element boron is composed of two isotopes: About 19.9%

of all boron atoms are 10B with a mass of 10.0129 amu, and the
remaining 80.1% are 11B with a mass of 11.0093 amu. The
average atomic mass for boron is calculated to be:

For 35: Atomic number =17 there are 17 protons and 18 neutrons.
Because no charge is indicated, there must be equal numbers of
protons and electrons, or 17 electrons.

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• For 37: There are 17 protons, 20 neutrons, and 17 electrons
per atom.

• These are isotopes of the same element. Both have 17 protons,

but they differ in their numbers of neutrons: one has 18
neutrons and the other has 20.

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• Molecule

• A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or compound

that can have a stable independent existence.

• In all molecules, two or more atoms are bonded together in very

small, discrete units (particles) that are electrically neutral.

• Individual oxygen atoms are not stable so atoms of oxygen

combine to form pairs.

• The oxygen with which we are all familiar is made up of two

atoms of oxygen; it is a diatomic molecule, O2.

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• Hydrogen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine
are other examples of diatomic molecules.

• Some other elements exist as more complex molecules.

• One form of phosphorus molecules consists of four atoms, and

sulfur molecule exists as eight-atom at ordinary temperatures
and pressures.

• Molecules that contain two or more atoms are called

polyatomic molecules.

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(a) A model of the P4 molecule of white phosphorus. (b) A model
of the S8 ring found in rhombic sulfur. (c) Top view of the S8 ring
in rhombic sulfur.

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• Molecules of compounds can composed of more than one kind
of atom.

• A water molecule consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one

atom of oxygen.

• A molecule of methane consists of one carbon atom and four

hydrogen atoms.

• Atoms are the components of molecules, and molecules are

the stable forms of many elements and compounds.

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• Compounds
• A compound is an electrically neutral substance that consists
of two or more different elements with a definite ratio.

• A binary compound consists of only two elements. For

example, water is a binary compound of hydrogen and
oxygen, with two hydrogen atoms for each oxygen atom.

• Whatever the source of the water, it has exactly the same

composition.

• A substance with a different ratio of atoms would not be water.

For example Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), has one hydrogen
atom for every oxygen atom.
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• Compounds are classified as either organic or inorganic.

• Organic compounds contain the element carbon and usually

hydrogen.

• There are millions of organic compounds, including fuels

such as methane and propane, sugars such as glucose and
sucrose, and most medicines.

• These compounds are called organic because it was once

believed, incorrectly, that they could be formed only by
living organisms.

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• Inorganic compounds are all the other except the organic
compounds.

• They include water, ammonia, silica, mineral acid, and many,

many more.

• Simple carbon compounds, particularly carbon dioxide and

carbonates, are inorganic compounds.

• Intermetallic compounds are formed when the atoms of two

metals bond in specific proportions.

• Example NiTi, is used in orthodontic wires, Ag3Sn, found in

“silver” dental fillings and FeCo, which is used in magnets.
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 Molecules and Molecular Compounds
• The chemical formula of a compound represents its
composition in terms of chemical symbols.

• Subscripts show the numbers of atoms of each element present

in the smallest unit that is representative of the compound.

• For a given molecule chemical formula shows how many

atoms of each type of element are present in a single molecule
of the compound.

• For instance, the molecular formula for water is H2O: each

molecule contains one O atom and two H atoms.

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• A structural formula indicates how the atoms are linked
together, but not their actual three-dimensional arrangement in
space.

• For instance, the molecular formula of methanol (wood spirit or

wood alcohol) is CH4O, and its structural formula is:
H

H C O H

• Each line represents a chemical bond and each symbol an atom.

• Structural formulas contain more information than the chemical

formula.
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• Chemists condense structural formula and write, for instance,
CH3OH to represent the structure of methanol.

• This “condensed” structural formula indicates the groupings of

the atoms and summarizes the full structural formula.

• Symbols with subscripts represent atoms connected to the

preceding element in the formula.

• For example, methylpropane has a methyl group (−CH3)

attached to the central atom and the condensed version of
its structural formula is written as HC(CH3)3.

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• Carbon atoms nearly always form four bonds, they can form
chains and rings of almost limitless variety.

• Carbon atoms can be joined by

1. single bonds, represented by a single line (C−C).

2. double bonds, represented by a double line (CC).
3. triple bonds, represented by a triple line (CC).

• A carbon atom can form four single bonds, two double

bonds, or one single and one triple bond.

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• A line structure represents a chain of carbon atoms by a zigzag
line.

• Each short line indicates a bond and the end of each line
represents a carbon atom.

• Atoms other than C and H are shown by their symbols.

Cl
OH

butadiene
2-chlorobutane

4-Cyclohexenol

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 Ions and Ionic Compounds
• Ions
• An ion is an atom or group of atoms that carries an electric
charge.

• Ions that possess a positive charge, such as the sodium ion, are
called cations.

• Those carrying a negative charge, such as the chloride ion, are

called anions.

• The charge of an ion is written as a superscript on the right side

of the chemical symbol(s) Na+ and Cl− .

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• Ions can be diatomic, meaning that they consist of two atoms
bonded together, or polyatomic, meaning that they consist of
three or more atoms bonded together.

• For example, cyanide ion (CN−) is diatomic, and the

ammonium ion (NH4+) is polyatomic.

• The most common polyatomic anions are the oxoanions,

polyatomic anions that contain oxygen.

• They include the carbonate, CO32; nitrate NO3− ; phosphate,

PO43; and sulfate, SO42, anions.

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• Ionic compounds
• Ionic compounds have a huge number of cations and anions
stacked together in a regular three-dimensional formation.

• The ions form bond together by the attraction between their

opposite charges.

• Within the crystal of NaCl each Na+ ion is surrounded by six

Cl− ions, and each Cl− ion is similarly surrounded by six Na+
ions.

• Ionic compounds referred as formula unit.

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• The arrangement of ions in NaCl. (a) A crystal of sodium
chloride consists of an extended array that contains equal
numbers of sodium ions (small spheres) and chloride ions
(large spheres). Within the crystal, (b) each chloride ion is
surrounded by six sodium ions, and (c) each sodium ion is
surrounded by six chloride ions.

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THE NOMENCLATURE OF COMPOUNDS

• Many compounds were given informal, common names

before their compositions were known.

• Common names include water, salt, sugar, ammonia, and

quartz.

• A systematic name, on the other hand, reveals which elements

are present and, in some cases, the arrangement of atoms.

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• Names of Cations

• The name of a monatomic cation is the same as the name of the

element forming it, with the addition of the word ion.

• When an element can form more than one kind of cation, such as
Fe2+ and Fe3+, Fe2+ is named as Iron(II) ion and Fe3+ is named as
Iron(III) ion.

• Some older systems of nomenclature denoted the endings -ous and

-ic for the ions with lower and higher charges, respectively.

• Therefore Iron(II) ions called ferrous ions & iron(III) ions called
ferric ions.

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• Names of Anions

• Monatomic anions, such as the Cl and the O ions, are named by

adding the suffix -ide and the word ion to the first part of the name
of the element.

• Example fluoride ion, F−; chloride ion, Cl−; bromide ion, Br−
iodide ion, I−; oxide ion, O2; sulfide ion, S2−; hydrogen sulfide ion,
HS− and cyanide ion, CN−.

• The most common polyatomic anions are the oxoanions,

• Oxoanions are anions that that contain oxygen.

• If only one oxoanion of an element exists, its name is formed
by adding the suffix -ate to the stem of the name of the
element, as in the carbonate ion, CO32−

• Some elements can form two types of oxoanions, with

different numbers of oxygen atoms, for example NO2− and
NO3−.

• In such cases, the ion with the larger number of oxygen atoms
is given the suffix -ate, and that with the smaller number of
oxygen atoms is given the suffix -ite.

• Thus, NO3− is nitrate, and NO2− is nitrite.

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• Some elements—particularly the halogens—form more than two
kinds of oxoanions.

• The name of the oxoanion with the smallest number of oxygen

atoms is formed by adding the prefix hypo- to the -ite form of
the name, as in the hypochlorite ion, ClO −

• The oxoanion with the highest oxygen atoms is named with the
prefix per- added to the -ate form of the name.

• An example is the perchlorate ion, ClO4−.

• The others are named as chlorite ion, ClO2− and chlorate ion,
ClO3−.
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 Names of Ionic Compounds

• An ionic compound is named with the cation name first,

followed by the name of the anion.

• The oxidation number of the cation is given if more than one

charge is possible.

• Example potassium chloride (KCl), ammonium nitrate

(NH4NO3), cobalt chloride (CoCl2) is called cobalt(II)
chloride; CoCl3 contains is called cobalt(III) chloride.

• Some ionic compounds form crystals that incorporate a

definite proportion of water molecules.

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• For example, copper(II) sulfate normally exists as blue
crystals of composition CuSO4 . 5H2O and called as Copper
(II) sulfate hexahydrate.

• Example
• Write the formulas for the following ionic compounds: (a)
sodium fluoride, (b) calcium fluoride, (c) iron(II) sulfate, (d)
zinc phosphate.

(d) The zinc ion is Zn2+, and the phosphate ion is PO43- . Now it
will take three Zn2+ions to account for as much charge (6+ total)
as would be present in two PO43- ions (6- total). So the formula
for zinc phosphate is Zn3(PO4)2.

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• Name the following ionic compounds: (a) (NH4)2S, (b)
Cu(NO3)2, (c) ZnCl2, (d) Fe2(CO3) 3.

• The presence of the polyatomic grouping NH4 in the formula

suggests to us the presence of the ammonium ion, NH4+. There
are two of these, each accounting for 1+ in charge. To balance
this, the single S must account for 2− in charge, or S2− , which
we recognize as the sulfide ion. Thus, the name of the
compound is ammonium sulfide.

• Many simple inorganic molecular compounds are named by

using the Greek prefixes to indicate the number of each type of
atom present.

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• When naming common binary molecular the element that
occurs further to the right in the periodic table named second,
with its ending changed to –ide.

• Example phosphorus trichloride, PCl3 dinitrogen oxide, N2O

sulfur hexafluoride, SF6 dinitrogen pentoxide, N2O5

• Some exceptions to these rules are the phosphorus oxides and

compounds that are generally known by their common names.

• The phosphorus oxides are distinguished by the oxidation

number of phosphorus.

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• Example, P4O6 is named phosphorus(III) oxide as though it
were (P3+)4(O2−)6, and P4O10 is named phosphorus(V) oxide as
though it were (P5+)4(O2−)10.

• Some binary molecular compounds have widely used common

names
• Ammonia NH3
• Hydrazine N2H4
• Phosphine PH3
• Nitric oxide NO
• Nitrous oxide N2O

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