A Brief History of Science

A B R I EF HISTORY
OF SCIENCE
ANTIQUI T Y
TO
20th C E
Fo r most o f human history, questions about
the w o r l d were answered by religious
authorities.
Mathematics was born i n Egypt. The

Babylonians were the first to apply it to
Astronomy.
The pre-Socratic philosophers i n Ancient

Gr e e c e were the first to develop a systematic
Science.
Thales o f Melitus
(624-546 BC)
I n the 7th Century he was dubbed “The Father o f Science.”
He was the first to posit non-supernatural explanations f o r

earthquakes, lightnings, etc.
He predicted solar eclipses, droughts a n d made a fortune

d o i n g so.
Anaximander
(610-546 BC)
Believed that l i f e came f r o m water
a n d mud.
He proposed that humans evolved

f r o m lower l i f e forms. (This
speculation was later vindicated by
Charles Darwin, 2400 years later.)
Empedocles
( 4 9 0 - 4 3 0 BC)
discovered a i r using a straw
a n d a glass o f water.
“Empedocles discovered the

invisible.” - C a r l Sagan
Democritus
(460-370 BC)
first to theorize
that matter is made
up o f
“atoms.” (literally
means ‘uncutable’ i n
Greek)
E rato sthen e
s(276-194 BC)
accurately measured the size /
circumference o f the earth using
2 sticks.
He created the first map o f the

world.
P ythago ra
(s570-495 BC)
Started a s c h o o l
d e d i c a t e d to
Mathematics a n d its
application to
nature.
Heraclitus & Parmenides
“Nature loves to hide.”
Started major debates on:
What justifies reason, knowledge o r experience?
Is nature fundamentally permanent o r damaging?

Chemistry
consisted o f 5 basic
elements
Earth, Air, Fire,

Water, Aether
Hippocrates & G a l e n
developed the first

scientific
approach to
anatomy a n d
medicine.
They used
experiments a n d
records to heal the
sick.
M i d d l e Ages
(5th - 14th CE)
Science continued through the Roman
Empire.
When the Empire f e l l a n d the Dark

Ages ensued, Science i n the West
ceased to progress.
While there were some European

scientist i n the m i d d l e ages, they
were generally isolated a n d
marginalized.
Most scientific advancements f r o m 500-1300
C E were made i n the Islamic world.
Medicine, Astronomy, Chemistry developed

considerably i n these regions.
Avicenna (circa 1000 CE) pioneered the

techniques that lead to the mo dern
hospital.
I n the 12th Century Europe, Scholasticism

t r i e d to reconcile ancient G r e e k thought with
biblical dogma (start o f the end o f The Dark
Ages.)
The Renaissance
( AD 1400-
1700)
St. Thomas Aquinas endorsed “Natural Theology” —
knowing G o d by studying His creation.
This lead to a social revolution - people started to

think!
Free discussion was demanded, weakening the Church’s

sovereignty.
Thinkers turning away f r o m the Church a n d going back

to antiquity f o r inspiration.
Thus there was a renaissance —a rebirth (in G r e e k

humanism)
The universe is once again a rational, comprehensible

The
Scientific Method
The Scholastic world-view d e f e r r e d to
Aristotle as the authority o n Science.
A l l motion a n d change are explained i n

terms o f a thing’s “telos” o r purpose.
He is the smartest man who ever lived, he

must have gotten it right.
I n the 16th century, Francis Bacon

challenged this.
Francis Bacon
“Being a genius is l i k e being able to
run fast. Yo u travel far, but unless
you have a map, you’ll be lost.”
He provided a “map” - the first

Scientific Method.
Empirical observation a n d
experimentation.
Rational analysis, mathematical

m o d e l i n g a n d deductive
reasoning.
New Theories a n d
Technologies
Boyle’s Theory o f Gases, Laws o f
Electricity, Harvey’s Theory o f the
C i r c u l a t i o n o f the Blo o d.
The telescope, the microscope,

thermometer, the printing press, gun
powder, the compass
The Scientific Revolution
There is a shift back to the i d e a that human reason,

not faith, has the power to discover ultimate truth.
The best minds f l o c k e d to Astronomy.
Nicholaus Copernicus proposed the heliocentric

(sun-centered) view o f the universe.
The “Copernican Revolution” challenged the

Ptolomeic/geocentric view that dominated f o r
1400 years (and was a church doctrine.)
The Copernican Revolution
We have to rethink
o u r place i n the
universe.
I f we’re not the

center, does that
mean we’re not
special?
Copernicanism
Copernicus System c o u l d explain things
that the Ptolomeic system c o u l d not.
Ex. the “retrograde motion” o f the

planets.
Problems with Copernicanism
The math didn’t wo r k out. (Copernicus thought the
Earth’s orbit is circular.)
Why d o dropped objects f a l l i n a straight line?
Copernicus d i e d before he was able to publish his book

which attempted to answer these questions.
Andreas Osiander wrote the (posthumous) intro to

Copernicus’ book, claiming his system was “just a
predictive t o o l ” a n d not a “true description o f nature.”
This position is c a l l e d ‘Instrumentalism.’

Copernican Revolution
Copernicans were deemed heretics

a n d burned at the stake.
G i o r d a n o Bruno, the first person

to speculate l i f e o n other planets.
Galileo Galilei
(Feb 15, 1564 - Jan 8, 1642)
100 years later, G a l i l e o improved the

telescope a n d published his f i n d i n g s
i n support o f Copernicus.
Then it became undeniable a n d the

revolution t o o k off.
G a l i l e o was sentenced to house

arrest f o r life.
Galileo’s defense…
Galileo’s (alleged) last w o r d s …

The Age o f Enlightenment
The G o l d e n Age f o r “natural philosophers.” (i.e.

scientists)
They t ur ne d away f r o m the Aristotelian m o d e l o f

trying to f i n d the ‘purpose’ o f motion.
Scientists started l o o k i n g f o r laws a n d

mechanisms i n nature.
Isaac Newton
(1643-1727)
epitomized the Age o f
Enlightenment.
His b oo k Mathematical Principles

o f Natural Philosophy (considered
to be one o f the most important
books ever written) changed
everything.
invented Calculus.
Lifelong celibacy
Isaac Newton’s greatest accomplishment
acco r ding to Newton himself…
Universal Laws o f Science
P r i o r to Newton, science was scattered a n d explained scattered phenomena.
His w o r k u n i f i e d disparate f i e l d s o f science (celestial mechanics a n d

terrestrial mechanics).
The Universal Law o f G rav i t a t i o n was the first truly UNIVERSAL scientific
law — applicable anywhere, n o exceptions.
Not applicable to quantum level, breaks d o w n o n singularities a n d really

massive objects, etc.
Newton thought the whole universe was one big machine, a deterministic
system o f causes a n d their necessary effects. This position is k n o w n as
“Mechanism.”
“ I f I have seen further than others, it is by
standing upon the shoulders o f giants.”
– Sir Isaac Newton

Development o f Modern Chemistry
Newton practiced alchemy — transforming one substance into

another.
Although alchemy is often portrayed as pseudoscience, it pioneered

the study o f the elements which later morphed into chemistry.
Difference between Chemistry a n d Alchemy?
Nothing to d o with m e t h o d o l o g i c a l processes used by chemists

a n d alchemists.
Has to d o with s o c i al structure. Alchemy is secretive, shared

only with a select few. Chemistry is characterized by openness,
where ideas are shared, tested by different people.
One o f the biggest issues d u r i n g this p e r i o d …
How d o we explain fire?
Priestley’s “Phlogiston Theory” said that there were tiny bodies

inside a l l combustible things, a n d when ablaze, they’re released.
The “Phlogiston Theory” was accepted f o r a very
l o n g time. I t was even considered c a n o n i c a l
science f o r many decades.
The theory was overturned by Antoine Lavoisier.
“Dephlogisticated air ” was oxygen.
This episode is an excellent example o f many o f

the themes i n this perio d (i.e. problems with
empiricism a n d the nature o f scientific
revolutions)
Modern Biology
C a r l Linnaeus developed the first b i o l o g i c a l
taxonomy. This inspired the young Charles Darwin
to become a naturalist.
While traveling, Darwin saw patterns i n organisms

a n d their environments, how they interbred, etc.
The competition f o r l i m i t e d resources made him

realize that o nly the fittest w o u l d survive to pass
o n their traits.
Charles Darwin
(12 Feb 1809 - 19 Apr 1882)
Darwin’s was NOT the first theory
o f evolution. But he was the first
to provide a mechanism f o r it
(Natural Selection) a n d a
mountain o f data to back it up.
After Mendel’s discovery o f

genetics was recognized,
Darwinism was c o n f i r m e d a n d
the “neo-Darwinian synthesis”
cemented the theory o f
revolution.
Sigmund F r e u d
(1856 - 1939)
an Austrian neurologist
f o u n d e r o f psychoanalysis
( c l i n i c a l method f o r treating
psychopathology through d i a l o g u e
between a patient a n d a
psychoanalyst)
theories had a revolutionary

effect o n the beliefs a n d morals
o f m o d e r n society as w e l l as o n
the arts.
F r e u d i n t r o d u c e d the i d e a o f the
unconscious, d i v i d e d the human
m i n d into id, ego a n d super ego,
a n d showed that o u r m i n d is far
f r o m being transparent to itself.
When considered i n
succession…
progressively
dismantled the
the Copernican, anthropocentric
understanding o f
Darwinian
the universe,
and Freudian displacing humanity
revolutions f r o m the center to
the periphery o f the
universe.
The I n f o r m a t i o n Revolution
the 4 t h revolution
ra dic a lly changed the way i n which human beings perceive

themselves, the universe, a n d the manner by which they
interact with the rest o f the world.
refers to the current economic, social a n d technological

trends beyond the I n d u s t r i a l Revolution.
features a new era o f economic globalization as

geography gradually disappears as a barrier to economic
activity.
Fo r the 1st time i n
Human History
Anyone can communicate with any
other number o f i n d i v i d u a l s
Cost = Zero
T ime = Z ero
Fo r the 1st time i n
Human History
everyone has access to
ALL human knowledge
Cost = Zero
T ime = Z ero

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A B R I EF HISTORY

Mathematics was born i n Egypt. The

The pre-Socratic philosophers i n Ancient

I n the 7th Century he was dubbed “The Father o f Science.”

He was the first to posit non-supernatural explanations f o r

He predicted solar eclipses, droughts a n d made a fortune

He proposed that humans evolved

“Empedocles discovered the

He created the first map o f the

“Nature loves to hide.”

Started major debates on:

What justifies reason, knowledge o r experience?

Is nature fundamentally permanent o r damaging?

Earth, Air, Fire,

developed the first

When the Empire f e l l a n d the Dark

While there were some European

Medicine, Astronomy, Chemistry developed

Avicenna (circa 1000 CE) pioneered the

I n the 12th Century Europe, Scholasticism

This lead to a social revolution - people started to

Free discussion was demanded, weakening the Church’s

Thinkers turning away f r o m the Church a n d going back

Thus there was a renaissance —a rebirth (in G r e e k

The universe is once again a rational, comprehensible

A l l motion a n d change are explained i n

He is the smartest man who ever lived, he

I n the 16th century, Francis Bacon

He provided a “map” - the first

Rational analysis, mathematical

The telescope, the microscope,

There is a shift back to the i d e a that human reason,

The best minds f l o c k e d to Astronomy.

Nicholaus Copernicus proposed the heliocentric

The “Copernican Revolution” challenged the

I f we’re not the

Ex. the “retrograde motion” o f the

Why d o dropped objects f a l l i n a straight line?

Copernicus d i e d before he was able to publish his book

Andreas Osiander wrote the (posthumous) intro to

This position is c a l l e d ‘Instrumentalism.’

Copernicans were deemed heretics

G i o r d a n o Bruno, the first person

100 years later, G a l i l e o improved the

Then it became undeniable a n d the

G a l i l e o was sentenced to house

Galileo’s (alleged) last w o r d s …

The G o l d e n Age f o r “natural philosophers.” (i.e.

They t ur ne d away f r o m the Aristotelian m o d e l o f

Scientists started l o o k i n g f o r laws a n d

His b oo k Mathematical Principles

His w o r k u n i f i e d disparate f i e l d s o f science (celestial mechanics a n d

Not applicable to quantum level, breaks d o w n o n singularities a n d really

– Sir Isaac Newton

Newton practiced alchemy — transforming one substance into

Although alchemy is often portrayed as pseudoscience, it pioneered

Difference between Chemistry a n d Alchemy?

Nothing to d o with m e t h o d o l o g i c a l processes used by chemists

Has to d o with s o c i al structure. Alchemy is secretive, shared