Understanding academic

argument
Chapter 4
 Famous quotes : traditional
argument

I love argument, I love

debate. I don't expect anyone
just to sit there and agree
with me, that's not their job.

~Margaret Thatcher~
The other night I ate at a real
nice family restaurant. Every
table had an argument going.

~George Carlin~
What is argument?
 Everyday definitions of argument

A conversation or discussion in which two

or more people disagree, often angrily.

A reason or set of reasons that

somebody uses to show that
something is true or correct.
 Historical background

The word “argument” is from the Latin

“arguere” which means “to make
clear.” Argument advances thought
and makes issues clearer.
 Academic argument can be
understood as…

…the process of establishing, through

the presentation of appropriate
evidence, the certainty or likelihood of
a particular point of view or opinion.
Why is it important to understand
argument?
Academic texts contain argument.

Identifying and using argument is a reliable

method for evaluating both sides of an issue
and forming your own opinions on
controversial issues.

The ability to argue is one of the most

important communication skills.
 Opinion

An opinion only becomes an informed

opinion once you have considered
both sides of a controversial issue
and, through a rational process,
weighed up the pros and cons of an
issue and decided which is most valid.
 Argument and critical thinking

Critical thinking means thinking

in the pursuit of relevant and
reliable knowledge about the
world.
Importantly, it means thinking for
oneself
 Why do we need critical thinking
skills?

These skills better prepare us to succeed in

the world.
Scholars argue that to live successfully in a
democracy, people must be able to think
critically in order to make sound decisions
about personal and civic issues.
So if you want to make a significant and
valuable contribution to society through your
work, then you need to develop these skills.
 Why do we need critical thinking
skills?

It is critical enquiry – an investigation of

problems, asking questions, posing new
answers - that challenges the status quo
and finds new information.
Am I a critical thinker?

Am I open-minded?
Do I value fair-mindedness?
Do I respect evidence and reasoning?
Am I able to look at an issue from a
different point of view to my own?
Do I value clarity and precision?
Will I change my view when reason leads
me to do so?
 What is reflection?
Essential to your development as a
student
Taking control of your own development
“Stepping back” mentally
Finding your voice
Forming your identity
 Reflection
Thinking about
*what you have experienced/thought
about/read/heard
*how you have experienced it/thought
about/read/heard
*how effectively you have experienced
it/thought about/read/heard
*how your thinking has changed as a result
*what you need to do to improve future
practice
 Constantly asking
yourself…
What was the experience/issue that I am
reflecting on? What did I already know
about this experience/issue –
preconceived ideas?
What was/is significant about this
experience/issue?
Did it/something change the way I view
things?
 So…

A person who thinks critically can ask

appropriate questions
Can gather relevant information
Can come to reliable conclusions about
the world
 In scholarship:

The aim is to get clarity about an issue

with accuracy, precision and consistency
To show sound evidence, good reasons
and fairness
It is part of all disciplines ranging from
historical and economic thinking to
scientific and moral thinking
 So it is not…

The mere acquisition and retention of

information alone because it is the way
that information is applied
The possession of a set of skills alone
because it is the way that skills are used
 What form does it take?

In scholarship:
A question for investigation is identified
A hypothesis formulated
 Academic work…

… presents ways of thinking about

the world. Whether it introduces
new ideas or evaluates current
ideas and practices, academic
arguments are, by definition
arguable.
 So …

You can agree or disagree with them. As

you think of potential ideas for your own
academic writing, you should ask yourself,
“What am I saying that is arguable, and who
am I trying to persuade?”
If you determine that the issue you are
raising is not really arguable or that nobody
would be persuaded to change their mind
about your subject, then you may want to
rethink your argument!
 What is an effective academic
argument?

Effective argument will be well-

grounded, persuasive, and
significant.
Effective argument requires us
not merely to participate in an
academic conversation, but also
to contribute something of
value to the discussion.
 Why argument

At university level, students

are expected to advance the
conversation in some
significant way.
 Understanding argument

When we read we need to examine how

the writer grapples with conflicting
perspectives on an issue. We also need
to examine the evidence that the writer
uses and then respectfully consider what
we think of the argument presented.
 In scholarship:

The aim is to get clarity about an issue

with accuracy, precision and consistency
To show sound evidence, good reasons
and fairness
It is part of all disciplines ranging from
historical and economic thinking to
scientific and moral thinking
 Reading academic argument requires
that:

conflicting claims are weighed

judgements about evidence are made
ideas are clearly, accurately, and honestly
represented
the ideas of others are considered both
respectfully and critically.
The key concepts in constructing
an argument

claim
reason
evidence
counterargument
concession (agree)
refutation (disagree and why)
 COMPONENTS OF ARGUMENT

the claim (point of view)

support
• evidence
• reasoning (which links the evidence to the
claim)

acknowledgment of the counter-argument/s

 The claim

The claim is the main idea in an

argument and reflects a particular
point of view.

Arguments have a main claim and

various sub-claims.
 So….

Your goal then becomes to defend

this claim against other competing
claims. Without a clear claim, your
argument will become unfocused.
 Questions to Consider in Evaluating
Arguments

1. What are you claiming?

2. What reasons do you have for
believing that claim?
3. On what evidence do you base
these reasons?
4. What would you say to
someone who said, “But what
about…?”
 Supporting your argument

The evidence you include to

strengthen your claim, and the
reasoning that links the evidence
to the claim is called support.

support = evidence + reasoning

 Types of evidence

logic
logic
authority
authority emotion
emotion

statistics
statistics CLAIM ethics
ethics

examples
examples analogy
analogy
experience
experience
 Differences in evidence

Informal argument usually draws on soft

evidence (shaded in yellow in previous
slide), particularly experience, emotion and
appeal to ethics.

Academic writing requires hard evidence

(shaded in orange) such as - statistics,
examples and appeals to authority.
 Types of evidence

scientific findings/experimental proof

facts
statistics
examples
statements by qualified authorities
 Using facts: what are reliable
facts? Which ones can you use?

A fact is something that is known with

certainty.

1. common knowledge
e.g. Men cannot bear children
2. reported facts
e.g. Secondary smoke is harmful
 Using facts

personally experienced facts

e.g. Nokia phones are easiest to use
 factual generalisations:
All the students in this class have cell
phones. I haven’t seen one of you without
one so I can assume and generalise that
you all do, but this may not necessarily be
the case = X
 Generalizations

Avoid words that state an absolute condition:

all, always, never
Eg: All nurses like working in large hospitals.
 More examples:

All men are lazy in the house and marry to

ensure that they never have to do housework.

Women feel the best thing they can do with

their lives is to have children.

Graduates are leaving South Africa as there

are no work opportunities and it is
dangerous.
 Being aware of using assumptions

An assumption is something we take for

granted or presuppose. Usually it is
something we previously learned and do not
question. It is part of our system of beliefs.
We assume our beliefs to be true and use
them to interpret the world about us.
We make judgments, form interpretations,
and come to conclusions based on the beliefs
we have formed.
 Addressing the counterargument

identify the counterargument

acknowledge the counterargument

concede (agree to) points in the

counterargument
(often leads to re-definition of key terms)
OR
Refute (disagree and say why) the
counterargument
 Why must you address the counter-
argument?

Let’s say I am arguing for the death penalty.

And you, as my audience already have ideas
of the cons of the death penalty and if I do
not deal with your opposing views, by the end
of my argument you will still be inclined to
hold onto your original idea. So, addressing
the counter-argument strengthens your own
argument by making it more persuasive.
How do you concede, without giving up?

 An example would be physical education. I argue

that physical education should be compulsory
throughout school because it will make the general
population healthier.

 You then argue that teenagers often have low self-

esteem and body image and physical education
exacerbates that. I then say, ok – you’re right. But,
we can then still enforce physical education at
primary school level, if not at high school.
 How does research fit in?

Research is important for 3 reasons:

1. It allows you to develop ideas.

2. It allows you to refine your ideas.
3. It allows you to support your ideas.
 Research = evidence

Primary (direct) research:

Fieldwork (hands-on): experiments,
observation, interviews, focus groups
Secondary (indirect) research:
Texts: books, journals, magazines, newspapers,
the internet

Appeals to authority
 In summary

The goal in argument is to defend your claim

as true and possible.

You do this by giving reasons/evidence.

Your objective is to make your case so that

your reader is convinced of the
reasonableness of your point of view.
 When checking your argument
(keep in mind)
 What is the main claim?
 What are the sub-claims?
 Is the supporting information relevant to the claim?
 What claims do you agree with, and why?
 What claims do you disagree with, and why?
 Are counter arguments considered?
 Is there any evidence of bias on the part of the writer?
 Do all the members of the group find the argument convincing?
Why?
 Who is the intended audience?
 Does the argument effectively address the intended audience?
 What do your responses to the text reveal about your concerns
and values as readers?