COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

‫م زينب كاظم جابر‬.‫م‬

 COMPUTER COMPONENTS

There are 5 main computer components

• Input devices
• CPU
• Output devices
• Primary memory
• Secondary memory
 OPERATION OF COMPUTER COMPONENTS

• Inputting: it is the process of entering raw data ,instruction and information into the
computer with the help of input devices
• Storing : the computer has primary and secondary storage to store data and instruction
so it store the data before sending it to CPU ,and store the processed data before display
it as output.
• Processing: it is the process of converting the raw data into useful information.
• Outputting: it is the process of presenting the process data through output devices
• Controlling: this operation is performed by the conteol units that it is part of CPU
The control unit ensures that all basic operation are executed in right manner and
sequence.
A microprocessor is a component that performs the instructions and
tasks involved in computer processing. In a computer system, the
microprocessor is the central unit that executes and manages the
logical instructions passed to it.
A microprocessor may also be called a processor or central processing
unit, but it is actually more advanced in terms of architectural design
and is built over a silicon microchip.
‫ في‬.‫المعالج الدقيق هو مكون يقوم بتنفيذ التعليمات والمهام المتعلقة بمعالجة الكمبيوتر‬
‫ المعالج الدقيق هو الوحدة المركزية التي تنفذ وتدير التعليمات المنطقية‬، ‫نظام الكمبيوتر‬
‫قد ُيطلق على المعالج الدقيق أيًض ا اسم معالج أو وحدة معالجة‬.‫التي تم تمريرها إليه‬
‫ ولكنه في الواقع أكثر تقدًم ا من حيث التصميم المعماري ويتم بناؤه على شريحة‬، ‫مركزية‬
‫من السيليكون‬.

The microprocessor contains millions of tiny

components like transistors, registers, and diodes
that work together.
 MICROPROCESSOR

• It is a silicon chip that contains a CPU . In the world of personal computers ,the terms microprocessor and CPU are
used interchangeably.
• A microprocessor is a digital electronic component with miniaturized transistors on a single semiconductor integrated
circuit (IC).
• One or more microprocessor typically serve as a central processing unit CPU in a computer system or handheld
device.
• Microprocessor made possible the advent of the microcomputer
• At the heart of all personal computers and most working station sits a Microprocessor.
• Microprocessor also control the logic of almost all digital devices from clock radios to fuel –injection system for
automobiles
• Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessor
• Instruction set: the set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute.
• Bandwidth: the number of bits processed in a single instruction
• Clock speed: given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines how many instruction per second the processor
can execute.
• in both cases the higher the value , the more powerful the CPU
• In addition to bandwidth and clock speed , microprocessors are
classified as being either RISC or CISC

• Reduced set instruction set architecture (RISC)

• The main idea behind is to make hardware simpler by using an instruction set
composed of a few basic steps for loading evaluating and storing operations
just like an addition command will be composed of loading data , evaluating
and storing

• Complex instruction set architecture (CISC)

• The main idea behind is to make hardware complex as a single instruction
will do all loading , evaluating and storing operations just like a multiplication
command will do stuff like loading data, evaluating and storing it
 MICROPROCESSOR MICROCONTROLLER
It is a CPU
Memory ,
• It is a single chip
I\O ports to be connected
externally • Consists memory,
I\O Ports
 A microprocessor consists of an ALU, control unit
and register array. Where ALU performs arithmetic
and logical operations on the data received from
an input device or memory. Control unit controls
the instructions and flow of data within the
computer. And, register array consists of registers
identified by letters like B, C, D, E, H, L, and
accumulator.
What Is an ALU?
An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit
used to perform arithmetic and logic operations. It
represents the fundamental building block of the
central processing unit (CPU) of a computer.
Modern CPUs contain very powerful and complex
ALUs. In addition to ALUs, modern CPUs contain What is Register?
a control unit (CU). basically used to quickly store, accept, transfer,
and operate on data based on the instructions that
will be immediately used by the CPU.
For CPU processing these register plays a critical
role. When we give the input, these are stored and
in register processes and the output is from the
register only.
 HOW DOES A MICROPROCESSOR WORK?

• The microprocessor follows a sequence: Fetch, Decode, and then

Execute.
• Initially, the instructions are stored in the memory in a sequential order.
The microprocessor fetches those instructions from the memory, then
decodes it and executes those instructions till STOP instruction is
reached. Later, it sends the result in binary to the output port. Between
these processes, the register stores the temporarily data and ALU
performs the computing functions.
 WHAT IS A COMPUTER PROGRAM?

• A computer program is a set of instructions written in a computer programming

language which direct the computer hardware to perform specific tasks
• A computer program can be written in any programming language depending
Upon the purpose and type of the software being developed.
 8085 MICROPROCESSOR

8085 is pronounced as "eighty-eighty-five" microprocessor. It is an 8-bit

microprocessor designed by Intel in 1977 using NMOS technology.

It has the following configuration −

8-bit data bus

16-bit address bus, which can address up to 64KB Memory location through A 0 to
A15
The first 8 lines of address bus and 8 line of data bus are multiplexed AD 0- AD 7
A 16-bit program counter
A 16-bit stack pointer
Six 8-bit registers arranged in pairs: BC, DE, HL
Requires +5V supply to operate at 3.2 MHZ single phase clock
It is used in washing machines, microwave ovens, mobile phones, et
It has total 40 pins
 8085 MICROPROCESSOR

• IT consist of three main sections , an arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), a timing and control unit
and several registers

ALU
• The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), performs the following arithmetic and logic operations
• 1- addition
• 2- subtraction
• 3- logical AND
• 4- logical OR
• 5- logical EXCLUSIVE OR(XOR)
• 6- complement (logical NOT)
• 7-Incerment(add1)
• 8-Decerment(subtract1)
• 9- Left shift (add input to itself)
• 10-clear (result is zero)
8085 ARCHITECTURE

8085Functional units

1-Register \ memory unit

2-Arithmetic & logic unit(ALU)
3-Instruction decoder unit
4-Timing and control unit
5-Interrupts ,And , The serial communication
unit
Timing and control unit
The timing and control unit generates timing signals for the execution of instruction
And control of peripheral devices . The organization of a microprocessor and types of registers
differ from processor to processor . The timing used for the execution of instruction and control
of peripherals are different for different microprocessors.
The selection of a suitable microprocessor for a particular application is a tough task for an
engineer
The knowledge of the organization and timing and control system helps an engineer in the
selection of a microprocessor
The design and cost of a processor also depend on the timing structure and register
organization .

For the execution of an instruction a microprocessor fetches the instruction from the memory
and executes it
The time taken for the execution of an instruction is called instruction cycle (IC)
• An instruction cycle(IC) consist of fetch cycle (FC),and execute cycle (EC)
• IC= FC+EC
• FETCH OPERATION:
• The fetch operation the microprocessor gets first byte of the instruction . Which is
operation code (opcode). From the memory , the program counter keeps the track of
address of the next instruction to be executed . In the beginning of the fetch cycle the
content of the program counter is sent to the memory . This takes one clock cycle , the
memory first read the opcode . This operation also takes one clock cycle, then the memory
sends the opcode to the microprocessor , which takes one clock period
• The total time for fetch operation is the time required for fetching an opcode from the
memory . This time called fetch cycle
• Execution operation :
• The opcode fetched from the memory goes to the data register DR(data\ address buffer in
intel 8085), and then to instruction register IR , then it goes to the decoder circuitry is
within the microprocessor. After the instruction is decoded , executed
 8085 REGISTERS

Registers used by the CPU to

store the data, addressed and
machine instruction during the Special
program execution purpose are
used to store
a specific
type of data
and
preformed
General purpose special
Registers function
Are used to store
the data in the
temporary
memory during
the execution
REGISTERS:-
• General Register
The 8085 has six general-purpose registers to store 8-bit data; these are identified as- B, C, D, E, H, and L.
These can be combined as register pairs – BC, DE, and HL, to perform some 16-bit operation. These
registers are used to store or copy temporary data, by using instructions, during the execution of the
program.
• 8-bit B and 8-bit C register can be used as one 16 bit BC register pair , when used as a pair the C
register contains low – order byte . Some instruction may use BC register as a data pointer.
• 8-bit D and 8-bit E register can be used as one 16- bit DE register pair , when used as a pair the E
register contains low –order byte. Some instruction may use DE register as a data pointer.
• 8-bit H and 8-bit L register can be used as one 16 bit HL register pair , when used as a pair the L
register contains
• low –order byte. Some instruction may use HL register as a data pointer used to reference memory
address
• Stack pointer : is a16 bit register .it holds the address of the stack top , the stack is a sequence of
memory location defined by the programmer . The stack is used to save the content of a register during
the execution of a program .
• The last memory location of the occupied 4 portion of the stack is called stack top .
• REGISTERS:-
• Accumulator or A register an 8 bit register used for arithmetic ,logic ,I\O and load \store operations
• Flag Register : it is 8 bit register , five bits used only as shown in fig

• Sign(S):set if the most significant bit of the result is set (one)

• Zero (Z):the zero status flag Z is set to 1 if the result of an arithmetic or logical operation is zero . For
non zero result it is to 0
• Auxiliary carry (AC) : set to 1 if there was a carry out from bit D3 to bit D4 of the result.
• Parity(P): the parity status flag is set to 1 when result of the operation contains even number of 1’s .
It is set to zero when there is odd number of 1’s.
• Carry(CY): The carry status flag holds carry out of the most signification bit resulting from the execution
of an
Arithmetic operation , if there is a carry from addition or a borrow from subtraction or comparison , the
carry flag CS is set to 1 , otherwise 0
• Example –
Here two binary numbers are added. The result produced is stored in the accumulator. Now lets
check what each bit means. Refer to the below explanation simultaneously to connect them with
the example.

•Sign Flag (7th bit): It is reset(0), which means

number stored in the accumulator is positive.
•Zero Flag (6th bit): It is reset(0), thus result of
the operations performed in the ALU is non-zero.
•Auxiliary Carry Flag (4th bit): We can see that
b3 generates a carry which is taken by b4, thus
auxiliary carry flag gets set (1).
•Parity Flag (2nd bit): It is reset(0), it means that
parity is odd. The accumulator holds odd number
of 1’s.
•Carry Flag (0th bit): It is set(1), output results in
more than 8 bit.
• (c) Memory Registers –
• There are two 16-bit registers used to hold memory addresses. The size of
these registers is 16 bits because the memory addresses are 16 bits. They
are :-
• Program Counter: This register is used to sequence the execution of the
instructions. The function of the program counter is to point to the memory
address from which the next byte is to be fetched. When a byte (machine
code) is being fetched, the program counter is incremented by one to point to
the next memory location.

• It is used as a memory pointer. It points to a memory location in read/write

memory, called the stack. It is always incremented/decremented by 2 during
push and pop operation.