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    Discrete Mathematics: MATH-161

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    Discrete Mathematics: MATH-161

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    Discrete Mathematics: MATH-161

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    National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST)

    School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (SEECS)


    Department of Basic Sciences

    Discrete Mathematics
    MATH-161

    Lecture # 19

    Course Instructor: Dr Saira Zainab


    Cell # :03325193283
    Email: saira.zainab@seecs.edu.pk
    Office # 207, IAEC
    1
    3. Proof by Counter Example
    Example 3
    Show that the statement “every positive integer is the sum of the squares
    of two integers” is false.

    Solution
    To show that this statement is false, we look for a counterexample, which is
    a particular integer that is not the sum of the squares of two integers.

    To choose a counterexample, we can select 3 because it cannot be written


    as the sum of the squares of two integers.
    Let’s use 0 and 1 which implies 0²+1²=0+1=1 which is not equal to 3.

    Therefore, we can’t get 3 as the sum of two terms.

    Hence proved.
    General Examples
    Example
    Show that the additive inverse, or negative, of an even number is an even
    number.

    Solution
    We have shown that whenever we have an even integer, its negative is
    even.
    Suppose that ‘a’ is an even integer.
    Then there exists an integer s such that a = 2s
    Its additive inverse is −2s=2(-s), by rules of arithmetic and algebra
    Since this is 2 times the integer −s, it is even, as desired.

    Hence Proved.
    General Examples
    General Examples
    General Examples
    Question
    Prove or disprove that the product of two irrational numbers is irrational.
    Solution
    To disprove it we need only one case doesn`t match the law.
    Now let X = √2, irrational number.
    X*X = 2 is rational number.
    Product of two irrational numbers is not an irrational number.
    Hence Proved.
    General Examples
    Mathematical Induction
    • In algebra or in other discipline of mathematics, there
    are certain results or statements that are formulated
    in terms of n, where n is a positive integer.
    • To prove such statements well-suited principle that is
    used, based on the specific technique is known as
    the principle of mathematical induction.
    • The principle of mathematical induction is one such
    tool which can be used to prove a wide variety of
    mathematical statements.
    • Each such statement is assumed as P(n) associated
    with positive integer n, for which the correctness for
    the case n=1 is examined. Then assuming the truth
    of P(k) for some positive integer k, the truth of n=k+1
    is established.
    Principle of Mathematical Induction
    There is a given statement P(n) involving the natural
    number n such that
    i. The statement is true for n=1, i.e., P(1) is true
    and
    ii. If the statement is true for n=k (where k is some
    positive integer ),
    then
    iii. the statement is also true for n=k+1 , i.e., truth of
    P(k) implies the truth of P(k+1).
    and finally

    iv. P(n) is true for all natural numbers n


    Deduction
    One key basis for mathematical thinking is deductive
    reasoning.
    Deduction in a nutshell is given a statement to be proven,
    often called a conjecture or a theorem in mathematics, valid
    deductive steps are derived and a proof may or may not be
    established,
    i.e. deduction is the application of a general case to a
    particular case.
    Deduction: Generalization → Specific Instances
    One such example is:
    (a)Eight is divisible by two.
    (b)Any number which is divisible by two is an even number.
    Therefore,
    (c) Eight is an even number.
    Dominoes
    • To understand the basic
    principle of mathematical
    induction
    • suppose a set of thin
    rectangular tiles are placed in
    order as shown in figure.
    When the first tile is pushed in
    the indicated direction
    (a) The first tile falls, and
    (b) In the event that any tile falls
    its successor will necessarily
    falls.
    • This is underlying principle of
    mathematical induction.
    When to use this principle

    • Statements giving expression about summation or


    multiplication of special series.

    • Statements to show the divisibility of an expression by


    a certain natural number.

    • Statements containing signs of inequality.


    Examples
    Example:
    For all n ≥ 1, prove that 1²+2²+3²+4²+……..+n²= n(n+1)(2n+1)/6

    Solution:
    Let the given statement be P(n)
    P(n):1²+2²+3²+4²+……+n²= n(n+1)(2n+1)/6

    For n=1,
    P(1)≡1=1(1+1)(2×1+1)/6=1×2×3/6=1
    which is true therefore, P(n) is true, where n = 1

    Assume that P(k) is true for some positive integer k


    i.e.,

    1²+2²+3²+4²+……..+k²=k(k+1)(2k+1)/6 --------[1].
    Cont. …
    We shall now prove that P(k+1) is also true.

    Now we have
    (1²+2²+3²+4²+……..+k²)+(k+1)²

    = k(k+1)(2k+1)/6+(k+1)² {Using[1]}

    = {k(k+1)(2k+1)+6(k+1)²}/6

    = (k+1)(2k²+7k+6)/6

    = (k+1)(k+1+1){2(k+1)+1}/6

    Thus P(k+1) is true, wherever P(k) is true.


    Hence, from the principle of mathematical induction , the
    statement is true for all natural number n.
    Cont. …
    Example
    Prove the following by using the principle of mathematical induction
    for all n ∊ N
    1.2.3+2.3.4+……..+n(n+1)(n+2)= n(n+1)(n+2)(n+3)/4

    Solution
    Let the given statement be P(n)
    P(n)=1.2.3+2.3.4+………..+n(n+1)(n+2)= n(n+1)(n+2)(n+3)/4
    For n=1
    P(1)≣ 1.2.3= 1(1+1)(1+2)(1+3)/4
    6 = 1×2×3×4/4 6
    = 24/4 =6
    which is true.

    therefore, P(n) is true, where n=1


    Assume that P(k) is true for some positive integer k

    =1.2.3+2.3.4+………+k(k+1)(k+2)= k(k+1)(k+2)(k+3)/4 -------------------[1]


    Cont. …
    We shall now prove that P(k+1) is also true

    Now we have,

    =1.2.3+2.3.4+………..+(k+1)(k+1+1)(k+1+2)

    =k(k+1)(k+2)(k+3)/4 + (k+1)(k+2)(k+3) …. From [1]

    ={k(k+1)(k+2)(k+3) + 4(k+1)(k+2)(k+3)}/4

    = (k+1)(k+2)(k+3)(k+4)/4

    Thus P(k+1) is true, whenever P(k) is true

    Hence, from the principle of mathematical induction, the statement P(n) is


    true for all natural numbers n.
    More Examples
    Example:
    For every positive integer n, prove that 7ⁿ- 3ⁿ is divisible by 4.

    Solution:
    We can write P(n): 7ⁿ+3ⁿ is divisible by 4

    We note that P(1): 7¹-3¹ = 4 which is divisible by 4.


    Thus P(n) is true for n=1.

    Let P(k) be true for some natural number k

    i.e.

    P(k) : 7ᵏ-3ᵏ is divisible by 4. We can write 7ᵏ-3ᵏ = 4d, where d ∊ N.


    Cont. …

    Now we wish to prove that P(k+1) is true whenever P(k) is true.

    Now,
    =7⁽ᵏ⁺¹⁾-3⁽ᵏ⁺¹⁾
    =7⁽ᵏ⁺¹⁾-7.3ᵏ+7.3ᵏ-3⁽ᵏ⁺¹⁾
    =7(7ᵏ-3ᵏ)+(7-3)3ᵏ
    =7(4d)+(7-3)3ᵏ
    =7(4d) +4.3ᵏ
    =4(7d+3ᵏ)

    From the last line, we see that 7⁽ᵏ⁺¹⁾-3⁽ᵏ⁺¹⁾ is divisible by 4.


    Thus P(k+1) is true when P(k) is true.

    Therefore, by principle of mathematical induction the statement


    P(n) is true for every positive integer n.
    Cont. …
    Example:
    Prove the following by using the principle of mathematical induction for all
    n ∊ N, n(n+1)(n+5) is a multiple of 3.
    Solution:
    We can write
    P(n): n(n+1)(n+5) is a multiple of 3.

    We note that P(1): 1(1+1)(1+5) = 12, which is a multiple of 3

    Thus P(n) is true for n=1.

    Let P(k) be true for some natural number k


    i.e.,

    P(k) : k(k+1)(k+5) is a multiple of 3.

    We can write, k(k+1)(k+5) = 3d, where d ∊ N.


    Cont. …
    Now we wish to prove that P(k+1) is true whenever P(k) is true.

    Now, =(k+1)(k+1+1)(k+1+5)
    =(k+1)[k(k+5) + k×1 +2(k+5) + 2×1]
    =(k+1)[k(k+5) + k+ 2k + 10+ 2]
    =(k+1)[k(k+5) +3k +12]
    =k(k+1)(k+5)+(k+1)3(k+4)
    =3d + 3(k+1)(k+4)
    =3[d + (k+1)(k+4)]

    From the last line, we see that (k+1)(k+1+1)(k+1+5) is a multiple of


    3.
    Thus P(k+1) is true when P(k) is true.

    Therefore, by principle of mathematical induction the statement


    P(n) is true for every positive integer n.
    Examples
    Example:
    Prove that 2ⁿ>n for all positive integers n.
    Solution:
    Let P(n) be the given statement.
    P(n): 2ⁿ>n when n=1, 2¹>n.
    Hence, P(1) is true.
    Assume that P(k) is true for any positive integer k, i.e.,
    2ᵏ>k -------------------[1]
    We shall now prove that P(k+1) is true whenever P(k) is true.
    Multiplying both sides of [1] by 2,
    we get 2.2ᵏ>2k i.e.,
    2ᵏ⁺¹>2k
    =k+k
    >k+1
    2ᵏ⁺¹>k+1
    Therefore P(k+1) is true when P(k) is true.
    Hence, by principle of mathematical induction, P(n) is true for every
    positive integer n.
    Examples
    Example:
    Prove that (1+x)ⁿ≥ (1+nx), for all natural number n, where x> -1.
    Solution:
    Let P(n) be the given statement
    P(n): (1+x)ⁿ≥(1+nx), for x> -1.

    We know that (1+x)≥(1+x) for x> -1

    P(n) is true when n=1.

    Assume that P(k): (1+x)ᵏ≥(1+kx), x> -1 is true. ------[1].

    We want to prove that P(k+1) is true for x> -1 whenever P(k) is


    true.
    Cont. …
    Consider the identity
    =(1+x)ᵏ⁺¹ =(1+x)ᵏ(1+x)
    Given that x> -1,so (1+x) > 0.
    Therefore, by using (1+x)ᵏ ≥ (1+kx)
    we have (1+x)ᵏ⁺¹ ≥ (1+kx)(1+x)
    (1+x)ᵏ⁺¹ ≥ (1+x+kx+kx²)
    Here k is a natural number and x²≥ 0 so that kx² ≥ 0.
    Therefore (1+x+kx+kx²) ≥ (1+x+kx)
    and so we obtained
    (1+x)ᵏ⁺¹ ≥ (1+x+kx)
    (1+x)ᵏ⁺¹ ≥ [1+(1+k)x]

    Thus the statement is established .


    Hence by principle of mathematical induction the statement P(n)
    is true for all natural numbers.
    Try as much as you can from…

    Relevant Exercises given at the end of Sections 1.6 and 1.7 of :

    Discrete Mathematics and its Applications


    (with Combinatorics and Graph Theory)
    6th Edition, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2007,
    Kenneth H. Rosen

    (Already uploaded on LMS)

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