Phys213 Lec13

Phys213 – Spring 2023
Chp. Title sections
17 Temperature, Thermal Expansion and the 1-4, 6-9

Ideal Gas Law
18 Kinetic Theory of Gases 1-4, 6-7
19 Heat and the First Law of Thermodynamics 1-10
20 Second Law of Thermodynamics 1-10
1st Midterm
34 The Wave Nature of Light 1-7
35 Diffraction and Polarization 1-8, 10-13
36 Special Theory of Relativity 1-13
37 Early Quantum Theory and Models of the 1-12

Atom
2nd Midterm
38 Quantum Mechanics 1-5, 7-10
39 Quantum Mechanics of Atoms 1-9

Diffraction from a Double Slit?
Limits of Resolution: Circular Apertures
• The ability of a lens to produce distinct images of two point
objects very close together is called the resolution of the lens.
• The resolution of a camera lens, for example, is often specified as
so many dots or lines per millimeter. (dpi = dots per inch) 300dpi
is good, 600dpi is great!
• Two principal factors limit the resolution of a lens.

1) Lens aberrations : Careful design of compound lenses can
reduce aberrations significantly, but they cannot be eliminated
entirely.
2) Diffration : Can not be eliminated
• A lens, because it has edges, acts like a round slit. When a lens
forms the image of a point object, the image is actually a tiny
diffraction pattern.
Thus an image would be blurred even if aberrations were

absent.
Limits of Resolution: Circular Apertures
𝜽 ≅ Sin 𝜽 = 𝝀/D
• For a rectangular slit:
𝜽 ≅ 1.22 𝝀/D
• For a circular opening:
D/1.22 is the geometric average of

the width of the operning.
For most purposes we need consider only the
central spot, since the concentric rings are so
much dimmer.
What about 2 images?
• Rayleigh criterion states that two
images are just resolvable when the
center of the diffraction disk of one
image is directly over the first minimum
in the diffraction pattern of the other.
𝜽 ≅ 1.22 𝝀/D
Using a shorter wavelength 𝝀

can reduce 𝜽 and thus increase
resolution.
Resolving Power (RP)
RP = s = f 𝜽 ≅ 1.22 𝝀 f /D
• For a microscope:
•
• f is the objective lens’ focal length
• A smaller RP means better resolution, better detail.
• Diffraction sets an ultimate limit on the detail that can be
seen on any object.
• For resolving power of a microscope, the focal length of
the lens cannot practically be made less than
(approximately) the radius of the lens, and even that is
• RP ≅ 𝝀 /2  it is not possible to resolve detail of objects

very difficult so in the best case: f ≅ D / 2.
smaller than the wavelength of the radiation being used.

Human Eye?
• The resolution of the human eye is limited by several factors.
• The resolution is best at the fovea, where the cone spacing is smallest, about
• The diameter of the pupil varies from about 0.1 cm to about 0.8 cm. For 𝝀 =
3μm.
550nm, the diffraction limit is about 𝜽 ≅ 1.22 𝝀 /D ≅ 8x10–5 rad to 6x10–4 rad.
• The eye is about 2 cm long, giving a RP of s ≅ 2x10–2 m * 8x10–5 rad ≅ 2μm at
best, to about 10um at worst (pupil small).
• Spherical and chromatic aberration also limit the resolution to about 10 μm.
The net result is that the eye can just resolve objects whose angular separation
is around 5x10–4rad
• This corresponds to objects separated by 1 cm at a distance of about 20 m.
• The typical near point of a human eye is about 25 cm. At this distance, the eye
can just resolve objects that are 25 cm* 5x10–4 rad ≅ 10–4 m = 0.1 mm apart.
nm at best (Eq. 12 for violet light, 𝝀 = 400 nm ),

• Since the best light microscopes can resolve objects no smaller than about 200
the useful magnification = resolution by naked eye/ resolution by

microscope
is limited to about
Lets now look at the original question of
this chapter
Diffraction Grating
A large number of equally spaced parallel slits is
called a diffraction grating, although the term
“interference grating” might be as appropriate.
Gratings containing 10,000 lines per centimeter

are common, and are very useful for precise
measurements of wavelengths.
2 slits
The bright maxima are much sharper and
narrower for a grating.
6 slits
Diffraction Grating
Spectra produced by a grating:

(a) two wavelengths, 400 nm and 700 nm;
(b) white light. The second order will normally be dimmer than the first order.
Higher orders are not shown.)
f grating spacing is small enough, the second and higher orders will be missing.
Spectroscopy
ht from a source passes through a narrow slit S in the “collimator.”
slit is at the focal point of the lens L, so parallel light falls on the grating.
ere m is an integer representing the order

the distance between grating lines.
X-rays and X-ray diffraction
In 1895, W. C. Roentgen (1845–1923)
discovered that when electrons were
accelerated by a HV in a vacuum tube and
allowed to strike a glass or metal surface
inside the tube, fluorescent minerals some
distance away would glow, and photographic
film would become exposed.
HV = typically 30 kV to 150 kV.
Around 1912, Max von Laue (1879–1960)

suggested that if the atoms in a crystal were
arranged in a regular array, such a crystal
might serve as a diffraction grating for very
short wavelengths on the order of the
spacing between atoms, estimated to be
about 10–10 m = 10–1 nm
X-ray diffraction
Bragg equation after W. L. Bragg (1890–
1971), who derived it and who, together with
his father W. H. Bragg (1862–1942), developed
the theory and technique of X-ray diffraction by
crystals in 1912–1913.
m 𝝀 = 2d sin ϕ, m = 1, 2, 3,…
Polarization
Vertically polarized
Horizantally polarized
Vertical Polaroid transmits only the vertical

component
of a wave (electric field) incident upon it.
I = I0 cos2 𝜽
Polarization

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Phys213 – Spring 2023

Chp. Title sections

17 Temperature, Thermal Expansion and the 1-4, 6-9

18 Kinetic Theory of Gases 1-4, 6-7

19 Heat and the First Law of Thermodynamics 1-10

20 Second Law of Thermodynamics 1-10

35 Diffraction and Polarization 1-8, 10-13

36 Special Theory of Relativity 1-13

37 Early Quantum Theory and Models of the 1-12

38 Quantum Mechanics 1-5, 7-10

39 Quantum Mechanics of Atoms 1-9

• Two principal factors limit the resolution of a lens.

Thus an image would be blurred even if aberrations were

D/1.22 is the geometric average of

Using a shorter wavelength 𝝀

• RP ≅ 𝝀 /2  it is not possible to resolve detail of objects

smaller than the wavelength of the radiation being used.

nm at best (Eq. 12 for violet light, 𝝀 = 400 nm ),

the useful magnification = resolution by naked eye/ resolution by

Gratings containing 10,000 lines per centimeter

Spectra produced by a grating:

ere m is an integer representing the order

HV = typically 30 kV to 150 kV.

Around 1912, Max von Laue (1879–1960)

Vertical Polaroid transmits only the vertical

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