Chapter 4

Research Design
Chapter 4: The Research Design

 Research Design
 Sampling Methods
 Measurement
 Measurement scales
 Instrument Design
 What is Research Design?
General Perspective;

It is a blue print that is used in completing a

study.
Research design is a comprehensive plan of the
sequence of operations that a researcher intends
to carry out to achieve the research objectives.
It involves selecting the most appropriate
methods and techniques to solve the problem
under investigation.
It is a plan or action and blue print for collective
analysis and interpretation of data.
 Scientific Definitions:
 “Research design is the planned sequence of the
entire process involved in conducting a research
study” Miller.
 Designing a particular research depends mainly on
research purpose.

 “Research design is the plan and structure of

investigation so as to obtain answers to research
questions. The plan is the overall scheme or
program of the research. It includes an outline of
what the investigator will do from writing
hypotheses and their operational implications to the
final analysis of data. A research design expresses
both the structure of the research problem and the
plan of investigation used to obtain empirical
evidence for the problem.” Donald and Pamela.
 Major Research design decisions
Wilkinson and Bhandarkar with their through research
have listed the following major research design decisions:

What the study is about ?

What are the types of data needed?
Why the study is being made?
Where the data needed can be found?
Where or in what area the study will be carried out?
How much material or how many samples will be needed?
What bases of selection (sample) will be used?
What techniques of gathering data will be adopted?
How will the data be analyzed? And
How best can these above questions be decided upon and
decisions articulated in manner that the research purpose can be
achieved with minimum expenditure of money, time and energy?
 Major Types of Research Designs

1. Descriptive/ Survey
Descriptive research is a quantitative
research design,
Used by social scientists to describe human
behaviors, by market analysts to look at the habits
of customers,
2. Historical
A historical research design can be applied to all
fields of study, because it includes factors such as
origins, growth, theories and significant
persons.
It can collect both quantitative and qualitative
historical data.
 Contd…
3. Case Study
1. A case study is a qualitative research
design that performs in-depth investigation
of a narrow situation rather than a broad
statistical survey.
2. It narrows a broad area of research
into one case within that field.
3. It is useful for testing whether scientific
models or theories work in the real
world.
3. Case studies include data from field notes,
interviews and archival information.
 Contd..
4. Experimental
1. An experimental research design is considered
the most accurate method of research.
2. Usually applied to the physical sciences, it
attempts to prove or disprove a
hypothesis numerically, using statistical
analysis.

3. Because of the exacting structure of this design,

results can be statistically analyzed, replicated
and validated by other researches, greatly
diminishing arguments about the accuracy of
the results.
 Contd..

5. Quasi-Experimental X
1. Used frequently in the social sciences and
psychology, quasi-experiments lack a control
group, making firm statistical analysis difficult.
2. However, these experiments can be useful in
generating data to indicate general trends.
3. They are effective in obtaining a general
overview that can be followed up with a
quantitative or case study to focus on the
underlying reasons for the results generated.
 What is Action research?

Action research or participatory action

research 

1. Is a reflective process of progressive

problem solving led by individuals working
with others in teams or as part of a
"community of practice" to improve the way
they address issues and solve problems.
2. As designers and stakeholders,
researchers work with others to
propose a new course of action to help
their community improve its work
practices.
 Contd..
Action research challenges traditional
social science
In this sense, performing action
research is the same as performing an
experiment in applied field, thus it is an
empirical process.
 What is Constructive research

Most Common CS Research

 Constructive research is perhaps the most common computer

science research method.
 This type of approach demands a form of validation that
doesn’t need to be quite as empirically based as in other
types of research like exploratory research.

 Nevertheless the conclusions have to be objectively

argued and defined. This may involve evaluating the
“construct” being developed analytically against some predefined
criteria or performing some benchmark tests with the prototype.

 The term “construct” is often used in this context to refer to the

new contribution being developed. Construct can be a new
theory, algorithm, model, software, or a framework.
Sampling Methods
 Once the researcher has clearly specified the problem and
developed the appropriate design and data-collection
instrument, the next step is to select the elements from which
information is collected
 Information (data) can be generated from either population or
sample.
 The basic idea of sampling is that by selecting some of the
elements in the population, we may draw conclusions about the
entire population.
 Population: It is the totality of object or phenomena under
consideration for a specific study. A population is the total
collection of elements about which we wish to make some
inferences.
 Census: A census is a count of all the elements in a
population. It is a survey that includes the totality of objects or
subjects or phenomenon. But it is not always possible to undertake
a census or a complete enumeration of all items in the population
particularly when the population is too large. So one has to resort
to sample survey to generate the data required for the
investigation.
Contd…
 Sample: It is a proper subset or part of population. It is
used to represent the population. A population element is the
subject on which the measurement is being taken. It is the
unit of study.
 Sampling: is the procedure of selecting a sample from a
population. Sampling aims at obtaining consistent and
unbiased estimates of the population. The aim in a sample
survey is not just the characteristics of the sample but also
that of population from which the sample has been drawn.
 Why sample?
There are several reasons for sampling;
 Lower cost
 Greater accuracy of results
 Greater speed of data collection
 Availability of population elements.
Contd…
 Sampling element: The unit of analysis or case in
population, it is from which information is collected
which provides basis for analysis
 Characteristics of good sampling:
 Accuracy: It is the degree to which bias is absent
from the sample. When the sample is drawn properly,
some sample elements underestimate the population
values being studied and others overestimate them.
 Precision: The degree to which the standard errors
are minimized. No sample will fully represent its
population in all aspects. A sample statistics may be
expected to differ from its parameters as a result of
random fluctuations inherent in the sampling process.
This is referred to as the error of variances or sampling
error.
 Contd…
 Categories of sampling procedures:
 There are two categories of sampling procedures: Random
(Probabilistic) and Non-random (Non-Probabilistic).
1. Probability sampling: Is a sampling technique in which
every number of the population will have a known, non-
zero or equal probability of selection.
2. Non-Probabilistic sampling: is a sampling technique in
which units of the sample are selected on the bases of
personal judgment or convenience.
 Probability sampling techniques:
1. Simple random sampling:
2. Systematic sampling:
3. Stratified random samples:
4. Cluster Sampling
5. Area sampling
 Measurements as a Tool of Research

Measurement means scale, gauges, thermometers,

rulers but in research the meaning will be somewhat
different

Measurement means limiting the data (When we

measure something we set a limit like 12 inch=a foot,
5280 feet=a mile etc.) of any phenomenon-- substantial
or unsubstantial--(phenomenon) OR

Measurement is the assignment of numbers or

Quantitative values to things.
A researcher needs good measures for both independent
Two Basic Processes of Measurement
 Conceptualization  ( Theoretical )

Conceptualization is the process of taking a construct or

concept and refining it by giving it a conceptual or
theoretical definition
Conceptualization is often guided by the theoretical framework,
perspective, or approach the researcher is committed to.

 Operationalization ( Practical)

Operationalisation is the process of taking a conceptual

definition and making it more precise by linking it to one
or more specific, concrete indicators or operational
definitions.
E.g.
Gravity with Apple
 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

Determining the levels of measurement, is an

advanced process

More advanced methods of measuring is

Reliability and Validity.

“A level of measurement is the

precision( Accuracy) by which a variable is
measured.”
Measurement Scales (The 4 levels of Measurement)

For 50 years, with few critics, science has used

the Stevens (1951) typology of
measurement levels.
A scale is a device or an object used to measure or
quantify any event or another object.
Four Scales of Measurements
1) Nominal
2) Ordinal
3) Interval and
4) Ratio-(Stevens, 1946)
 There are 4 levels of measurement:
Nominal: the data can only be categorized
Ordinal: the data can be categorized and
ranked
Interval: the data can be categorized, ranked,
and evenly spaced
Ratio: the data can be categorized, ranked,
evenly spaced, and has a natural zero.
.
 1) Nominal Scale of Measurement
Nominal comes from Latin word nomen whose
meaning is name.
E.g. Measure a group of children by dividing
into two groups: girls and boys.
Each subgroup is thereby measured –restricted—
by virtue of gender to a particular category.
We can do further grouping on the basis of
their other parameters /standards etc. E.g.
Graduate and undergraduate
2) Ordinal scale of measurement 
In this we think in terms of symbols i.e.
> (greater than) or < (less than).

In essence this scale allows you to rank-

order our data (hence its name is
ordinal).
 3) Interval scale of measurement 
It is characterized by two features-

1) Equal units of measurements

2) Its zero point has been established arbitrarily.

Eg. Fahrenheit or Degree Celsius temperature

scales for measurements.
Example Converting 50° Celsius to Fahrenheit
Use the formula °F = °C * 9/5 + 32 to convert C to F.
Plug °C into the formula and solve for F.
°F = 50 * 9/5 + 32
°F = 90 + 32
°F = 122
 Formulas for Converting Temperature
Use these temperature conversion formulas to convert from one temperature scale to
another.
The formula for Fahrenheit to Celsius is given
below:
Given Fahrenheit temperature, °F = 108°F.
We know that the formula for Fahrenheit to Celsius
is °C = [(°F-32)×5]/9
Now Substitute the values in the formula,
°C = [(108-32)×5]/9
°C = (76×5)/9
°C = 380/9
kelvin to Celsius Conversion Example
°C = 42.2
Task: Convert 300 kelvin to °C (show work)
Formula: K - 273.15 = °C Calculations: 300K -
273.15 = 26.85°C Result: 300K is equal to
4) Ratio-Stevens(1946) scale of
measurement 
If we measure the temp in two scales 40 degree
F and 20 degree C.

We cannot say that 40 degree F is just twice

of the 20 degree C because these both scales
do not originates from a point of absolute
zero.
 Instruments Design in Research
 The most common research instrument is the
questionnaire. Poorly designed questionnaires do
not uncover the information you are seeking.
 Keep it simple.
 Include instructions for answering all questions
included on the survey.
 Begin the survey with general questions and move
towards more specific questions.
 Keep each question brief.
 Remember to pre-test the questionnaire.
 Mix the form of the questions. Use scales, rankings,
open-ended questions and closed-ended questions
for different sections of the questionnaire.
 Contd….
 There are two common formats for questions:
 Closed-ended questions
Respondents choose from possible answers included on the questionnaire.
 Types of closed-end questions include: True/False questions which offer respondents the
ability to answer yes or no.
 Multiple choice questions which offer respondents one or more choices from a list of
several answers.
 Scales refer to questions that ask respondents to rank their answers or measure
their answer at a particular point on a scale. For example, a respondent may have the
choice to rank their feelings towards a particular statement. The scale have values such as
Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Indifferent, Agree, and Strongly Agree
 Open-ended questions
Respondents answer questions in their own words. Completely unstructured
questions allow respondents to answer any way they choose. Types of open-ended
questions include:
 Word association questions ask respondents to state the first word that comes to mind
when a particular word is mentioned.
 Sentence, story or picture completion questions ask respondents to complete partial
sentences, stories or pictures in their own words. For example, a question for commuters
might read: "My daily commute between home and office is _____ miles and takes me an
average of ______ minutes. I use the following mode of transportation: _______."
.

The End
Any question?