1

Chapter 2 - Control Structures

Outline
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Algorithms
2.3 Pseudocode
2.4 Control Structures
2.5 if Selection Structure
2.6 if/else Selection Structure
2.7 while Repetition Structure
2.8 Formulating Algorithms: Case Study 1 (Counter-
Controlled Repetition)
2.9 Formulating Algorithms with Top-Down, Stepwise
Refinement: Case Study 2 (Sentinel-Controlled
Repetition)
2.10 Formulating Algorithms with Top-Down, Stepwise
Refinement: Case Study 3 (Nested Control Structures)
2.11 Assignment Operators
2.12 Increment and Decrement Operators
2.13 Essentials of Counter-Controlled Repetition
2.14 for Repetition Structure
2.15 Examples Using the for Structure

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 2

Chapter 2 - Control Structures

Outline
2.16 switch Multiple-Selection Structure
2.17 do/while Repetition Structure
2.18 break and continue Statements
2.19 Logical Operators
2.20 Confusing Equality (==) and Assignment (=)
Operators
2.21 Structured-Programming Summary

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 3

2.1 Introduction

• Before writing a program

– Have a thorough understanding of problem
– Carefully plan your approach for solving it
• While writing a program
– Know what “building blocks” are available
– Use good programming principles

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 4

2.2 Algorithms

• Computing problems
– Solved by executing a series of actions in a specific order
• Algorithm a procedure determining
– Actions to be executed
– Order to be executed
– Example: recipe
• Program control
– Specifies the order in which statements are executed

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 5

2.3 Pseudocode

• Pseudocode
– Artificial, informal language used to develop algorithms
– Similar to everyday English
• Not executed on computers
– Used to think out program before coding
• Easy to convert into C++ program
– Only executable statements
• No need to declare variables

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 6

2.4 Control Structures

• Sequential execution
– Statements executed in order
• Transfer of control
– Next statement executed not next one in sequence
• 3 control structures (Bohm and Jacopini)
– Sequence structure
• Programs executed sequentially by default
– Selection structures
• if, if/else, switch
– Repetition structures
• while, do/while, for

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 7

2.4 Control Structures

• C++ keywords
– Cannot be used as identifiers or variable names
C ++ Keywords

Keywords common to the

C and C++ programming
languages
auto break case char const
continue default do double else
enum extern float for goto
if int long register return
short signed sizeof static struct
switch typedef union unsigned void
volatile while
C++ only keywords
asm bool catch class const_cast
delete dynamic_cast explicit false friend
inline mutable namespace new operator
private protected public reinterpret_cast
static_cast template this throw true
try typeid typename using virtual
wchar_t

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 8

2.5 if Selection Structure

• Selection structure
– Pseudocode example:
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “Passed”
• Indenting makes programs easier to read
• C++ ignores whitespace characters (tabs, spaces, etc.)

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 9

2.5 if Selection Structure

• Flowchart of pseudocode statement

A decision can be made on

any expression.

true zero - false

grade >= 60 print “Passed”
nonzero - true
Example:
false
3 - 4 is true

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 10

2.6 if/else Selection Structure

• if
– Performs action if condition true
• if/else
– Different actions if conditions true or false
• Pseudocode
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
print “Passed”
else
print “Failed”
• C++ code
if ( grade >= 60 )
cout << "Passed";
else
cout << "Failed";

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 11

2.6 if/else Selection Structure

• Ternary conditional operator (?:)

– Three arguments (condition, value if true, value if false)
• Code could be written:
cout << ( grade >= 60 ? “Passed” : “Failed” );

Condition Value if true Value if false

false true
grade >= 60

print “Failed” print “Passed”

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 12

2.6 if/else Selection Structure

• Nested if/else structures

– One inside another, test for multiple cases
– Once condition met, other statements skipped
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 90
Print “A”
else
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 80
Print “B”
else
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 70
Print “C”
else
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “D”
else
Print “F”

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 13

2.6 if/else Selection Structure

• Example
if ( grade >= 90 ) // 90 and above
cout << "A";
else if ( grade >= 80 ) // 80-89
cout << "B";
else if ( grade >= 70 ) // 70-79
cout << "C";
else if ( grade >= 60 ) // 60-69
cout << "D";
else // less than 60
cout << "F";

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 14

2.6 if/else Selection Structure

• Compound statement
– Set of statements within a pair of braces
if ( grade >= 60 )
{ cout << "Passed.\n";}
else
{
cout << "Failed.\n";
cout << "You must take this course again.\n";
}
– Without braces,
cout << "You must take this course again.\n";
always executed
• Block
– Set of statements within braces

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 15

2.7 while Repetition Structure

• Repetition structure
– Action repeated while some condition remains true
– Psuedocode
while there are more items on my shopping list
Purchase next item and cross it off my list
– while loop repeated until condition becomes false
while ( condition ){
//while_body
}
• Example
int product = 2;
while ( product <= 1000 )
product = 2 * product;
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 16

2.7 The while Repetition Structure

• Flowchart of while loop

true
product <= 1000 product = 2 * product

false

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 17
2.8 Formulating Algorithms
(Counter-Controlled Repetition)
• Counter-controlled repetition
– Loop repeated until counter reaches certain value
• Definite repetition
– Number of repetitions known
• Example
A class of ten students took a quiz. The grades (integers in
the range 0 to 100) for this quiz are available to you.
Determine the class average on the quiz.

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 18
2.8 Formulating Algorithms
(Counter-Controlled Repetition)
• Pseudocode for example:
Set total to zero
Set grade counter to one
While grade counter is less than or equal to ten
Input the next grade
Add the grade into the total
Add one to the grade counter
Set the class average to the total divided by ten
Print the class average

• Next: C++ code for this example

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 19
1 // Fig. 2.7: fig02_07.cpp
2 // Class average program with counter-controlled repetition.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4 using std::cout; fig02_07.cpp
5
using std::cin;
namespace std; (1 of 2)
8
using std::endl;

9 // function main begins program execution

10 int main()
11 {
12 int total; // sum of grades input by user
13 int gradeCounter; // number of grade to be entered next
14 int grade; // grade value
15 int average; // average of grades
16
17 // initialization phase
18 total = 0; // initialize total
19 gradeCounter = 1; // initialize loop counter
20

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 20
21 // processing phase
22 while ( gradeCounter <= 10 ) { // loop 10 times
Outline
23 cout << "Enter grade: "; // prompt for input
24 cin >> grade; // read grade from user
fig02_07.cpp
25 total = total + grade; // add grade to total
(2 of 2)
26 gradeCounter = gradeCounter + 1; // increment counter
27 }
28 fig02_07.cpp
29 // termination phase output (1 of 1)
30 average = total / 10; // integer division
31
32 // display result
33 cout << "Class average is " << average << endl;
The counter gets incremented each
34
time the loop executes.
35 return 0; // indicate program ended successfully
36
Eventually, the counter causes the
37 } // end function main loop to end.

Enter grade: 98
Enter grade: 76
Enter grade: 71
Enter grade: 87
Enter grade: 83
Enter grade: 90
Enter grade: 57
Enter grade: 79
Enter grade: 82
Enter grade: 94
Class average is 81  2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.
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 21
2.9 Formulating Algorithms
(Sentinel-Controlled Repetition)
• Suppose problem becomes:
Develop a class-averaging program that will process an
arbitrary number of grades each time the program is run
– Unknown number of students
– How will program know when to end?
• Sentinel value
– Indicates “end of data entry”
– Loop ends when sentinel input
– Sentinel chosen so it cannot be confused with regular input
• -1 in this case

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 22
2.9 Formulating Algorithms
(Sentinel-Controlled Repetition)
• Top-down, stepwise refinement
– Begin with pseudocode representation of top
Determine the class average for the quiz
– Divide top into smaller tasks, list in order
Initialize variables
Input, sum and count the quiz grades
Calculate and print the class average

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 23
2.9 Formulating Algorithms
(Sentinel-Controlled Repetition)
• Many programs have three phases
– Initialization
• Initializes the program variables
– Processing
• Input data, adjusts program variables
– Termination
• Calculate and print the final results
– Helps break up programs for top-down refinement

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 24
2.9 Formulating Algorithms
(Sentinel-Controlled Repetition)
• Refine the initialization phase
Initialize variables
goes to
Initialize total to zero
Initialize counter to zero
• Processing
Input, sum and count the quiz grades
goes to
Input the first grade (possibly the sentinel)
While the user has not as yet entered the sentinel
Add this grade into the running total
Add one to the grade counter
Input the next grade (possibly the sentinel)

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 25
2.9 Formulating Algorithms
(Sentinel-Controlled Repetition)
• Termination
Calculate and print the class average
goes to
If the counter is not equal to zero
Set the average to the total divided by the counter
Print the average
Else
Print “No grades were entered”
• Next: C++ program

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 26
// Fig. 2.9: fig02_09.cpp
// Class average program with sentinel-controlled repetition.
Outline
#include <iostream>
10 #include <iomanip> // parameterized stream manipulators
fig02_09.cpp
11
(1 of 3)
using namespace std;

12 using std::setprecision; // sets numeric output precision

13
14 // function main begins program execution
15 int main()
16 {
17 int total; // sum of grades
18 int gradeCounter; // number of grades entered
19 int grade; // grade value
20 Data type double used to represent
21 double average; decimal numbers.
// number with decimal point for average
22
23 // initialization phase
24 total = 0; // initialize total
25 gradeCounter = 0; // initialize loop counter

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 27
26
27 // processing phase
Outline
28 // get first grade from user
29 cout << "Enter grade, -1 to end: "; // prompt for input
fig02_09.cpp
30 cin >> grade; // read grade from user
(2 of 3)
31
32 // loop until sentinel value read from user
33 while ( grade != -1 static_cast<double>()
) { treats total as a
34 double temporarily
total = total + grade; // (casting).
add grade to total
35 gradeCounter = gradeCounter + 1; // increment counter
36 Required because dividing two integers truncates the
37 cout << "Enter grade, -1 to end: "; // prompt for input
remainder.
38 cin >> grade; // read next grade
39
gradeCounter is an int, but it gets promoted to
40 } // end while
41
double.
42 // termination phase
43 // if user entered at least one grade ...
44 if ( gradeCounter != 0 ) {
45
46 // calculate average of all grades entered
47 average = static_cast< double >( total ) / gradeCounter;
48

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 28
49 // display average with two digits of precision
50 cout << "Class average is " << setprecision( 2 )
Outline
51 << fixed << average << endl;
52
fig02_09.cpp
53 } // end if part of if/else
(3 of 3)
54
55 else // if no grades were entered, output appropriate message
56 cout << "No grades were entered" << endl; fig02_09.cpp
57 output (1 of 1)
58 return 0; // indicate program ended successfully
59
60 } // end function main

fixed forces output setprecision(2)prints

to print two digits past
Enter grade, -1 to end: 75 decimal
in fixed point format (not point (rounded to fit precision).
Enter grade, -1 to end: 94
scientific notation). Also,
Enter grade, -1 to end: 97
Enter grade, -1 to end: 88
forces trailing zerosPrograms
and that use this must include <iomanip>
Enter grade, -1 to end: 70 decimal point to print.
Enter grade, -1 to end: 64
Enter grade, -1 to end: 83 Include <iostream>
Enter grade, -1 to end: 89
Enter grade, -1 to end: -1
Class average is 82.50

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 29

2.10 Nested Control Structures

• Problem statement
A college has a list of test results (1 = pass, 2 = fail) for 10
students. Write a program that analyzes the results. If more
than 8 students pass, print "Raise Tuition".
• Notice that
– Program processes 10 results
• Fixed number, use counter-controlled loop
– Two counters can be used
• One counts number that passed
• Another counts number that fail
– Each test result is 1 or 2
• If not 1, assume 2

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 30

2.10 Nested Control Structures

• Top level outline

Analyze exam results and decide if tuition should be raised
• First refinement
Initialize variables
Input the ten quiz grades and count passes and failures
Print a summary of the exam results and decide if tuition
should be raised
• Refine
Initialize variables
to
Initialize passes to zero
Initialize failures to zero
Initialize student counter to one
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 31

2.10 Nested Control Structures

• Refine
Input the ten quiz grades and count passes and failures
to
While student counter is less than or equal to ten
Input the next exam result
If the student passed
Add one to passes
Else
Add one to failures
Add one to student counter

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 32

2.10 Nested Control Structures

• Refine
Print a summary of the exam results and decide if tuition should
be raised
to
Print the number of passes
Print the number of failures
If more than eight students passed
Print “Raise tuition”
• Program next

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 33
1 // Fig. 2.11: fig02_11.cpp
2 // Analysis of examination results.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig02_11.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 2)
6 using std::cin;
7 using std::endl;
8
9 // function main begins program execution
10 int main()
11 {
12 // initialize variables in declarations
13 int passes = 0; // number of passes
14 int failures = 0; // number of failures
15 int studentCounter = 1; // student counter
16 int result; // one exam result
17
18 // process 10 students using counter-controlled loop
19 while ( studentCounter <= 10 ) {
20
21 // prompt user for input and obtain value from user
22 cout << "Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): ";
23 cin >> result;
24

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 34
25 // if result 1, increment passes; if/else nested in while
26 if ( result == 1 ) // if/else nested in while
Outline
27 passes = passes + 1;
28
fig02_11.cpp
29 else // if result not 1, increment failures
(2 of 2)
30 failures = failures + 1;
31
32 // increment studentCounter so loop eventually terminates
33 studentCounter = studentCounter + 1;
34
35 } // end while
36
37 // termination phase; display number of passes and failures
38 cout << "Passed " << passes << endl;
39 cout << "Failed " << failures << endl;
40
41 // if more than eight students passed, print "raise tuition"
42 if ( passes > 8 )
43 cout << "Raise tuition " << endl;
44
45 return 0; // successful termination
46
47 } // end function main

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 35
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Outline
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
fig02_11.cpp
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
output (1 of 1)
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Passed 6
Failed 4

Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1

Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Passed 9
Failed 1
Raise tuition

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 36

2.11 Assignment Operators

• Assignment expression abbreviations

– Addition assignment operator
c = c + 3; abbreviated to
c += 3;
• Statements of the form
variable = variable operator expression;
can be rewritten as
variable operator= expression;
• Other assignment operators
d -= 4 (d = d - 4)
e *= 5 (e = e * 5)
f /= 3 (f = f / 3)
g %= 9 (g = g % 9)
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 37
2.12 Increment and Decrement
Operators
• Increment operator (++) - can be used instead of c
+= 1
• Decrement operator (--) - can be used instead of c -
= 1
– Preincrement
• When the operator is used before the variable (++c or –-c)
• Variable is changed, then the expression it is in is evaluated.
– Posincrement
• When the operator is used after the variable (c++ or c--)
• Expression the variable is in executes, then the variable is changed.

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 38
2.12 Increment and Decrement
Operators
• Increment operator (++)
– Increment variable by one
– c++
• Same as c += 1
• Decrement operator (--) similar
– Decrement variable by one
– c--

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 39
2.12 Increment and Decrement
Operators
• Preincrement
– Variable changed before used in expression
• Operator before variable (++c or --c)
• Postincrement
– Incremented changed after expression
• Operator after variable (c++, c--)

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 40
2.12 Increment and Decrement
Operators
• If c = 5, then
– cout << ++c;
• c is changed to 6, then printed out
– cout << c++;
• Prints out 5 (cout is executed before the increment.
• c then becomes 6

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 41
2.12 Increment and Decrement
Operators
• When variable not in expression
– Preincrementing and postincrementing have same effect
++c;
cout << c;
and
c++;
cout << c;

are the same

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 42
1 // Fig. 2.14: fig02_14.cpp
2 // Preincrementing and postincrementing.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig02_14.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 2)
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11 int c; // declare variable
12
13 // demonstrate postincrement
14 c = 5; // assign 5 to c
15 cout << c << endl; // print 5
16 cout << c++ << endl; // print 5 then postincrement
17 cout << c << endl << endl; // print 6
18
19 // demonstrate preincrement
20 c = 5; // assign 5 to c
21 cout << c << endl; // print 5
22 cout << ++c << endl; // preincrement then print 6
23 cout << c << endl; // print 6

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 43
24
25 return 0; // indicate successful termination
Outline
26
27 } // end function main
fig02_14.cpp
(2 of 2)
5
5
fig02_14.cpp
6
output (1 of 1)
5
6
6

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 44
2.13 Essentials of Counter-Controlled
Repetition
• Counter-controlled repetition requires
– Name of control variable/loop counter
– Initial value of control variable
– Condition to test for final value
– Increment/decrement to modify control variable when
looping

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 45
1 // Fig. 2.16: fig02_16.cpp
2 // Counter-controlled repetition.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig02_16.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 1)
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11 int counter = 1; // initialization
12
13 while ( counter <= 10 ) { // repetition condition
14 cout << counter << endl; // display counter
15 ++counter; // increment
16
17 } // end while
18
19 return 0; // indicate successful termination
20
21 } // end function main

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 46
1
2
Outline
3
4
fig02_16.cpp
5
output (1 of 1)
6
7
8
9
10

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 47
2.13 Essentials of Counter-Controlled
Repetition
• The declaration
int counter = 1;
– Names counter
– Declares counter to be an integer
– Reserves space for counter in memory
– Sets counter to an initial value of 1

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 48

2.14 for Repetition Structure

• General format when using for loops
for ( initialization; LoopContinuationTest;
increment )
statement

• Example
for( int counter = 1; counter <= 10; counter++ )
cout << counter << endl;
– Prints integers from one to ten
No
semicolon
after last
statement

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 49
1 // Fig. 2.17: fig02_17.cpp
2 // Counter-controlled repetition with the for structure.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig02_17.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 1)
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11 // Initialization, repetition condition and incrementing
12 // are all included in the for structure header.
13
14 for ( int counter = 1; counter <= 10; counter++ )
15 cout << counter << endl;
16
17 return 0; // indicate successful termination
18
19 } // end function main

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 50
1
2
Outline
3
4
fig02_17.cpp
5
output (1 of 1)
6
7
8
9
10

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 51

2.14 for Repetition Structure

• for loops can usually be rewritten as while loops
initialization;
while ( loopContinuationTest){
statement
increment;
}
• Initialization and increment
– For multiple variables, use comma-separated lists
for (int i = 0, j = 0; j + i <= 10; j++, i++)
cout << j + i << endl;

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 52
1 // Fig. 2.20: fig02_20.cpp
2 // Summation with for.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig02_20.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 1)
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution fig02_20.cpp
9 int main() output (1 of 1)
10 {
11 int sum = 0; // initialize sum
12
13 // sum even integers from 2 through 100
14 for ( int number = 2; number <= 100; number += 2 )
15 sum += number; // add number to sum
16
17 cout << "Sum is " << sum << endl; // output sum
18 return 0; // successful termination
19
20 } // end function main

Sum is 2550

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 53
2.16 switch Multiple-Selection
Structure
• switch
– Test variable for multiple values
– Series of case labels and optional default case
switch ( variable ) {
case value1: // taken if variable == value1
statements
break; // necessary to exit switch

case value2:
case value3: // taken if variable == value2 or ==
value3
statements
break;

default: // taken if variable matches no other

cases
statements
break;
}

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 54
2.16 switch Multiple-Selection
Structure

true
case a case a action(s) break

false

true
case b case b action(s) break

false

.
.
.

true
case z case z action(s) break

false

default action(s)

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 55
2.16 switch Multiple-Selection
Structure
• Example upcoming
– Program to read grades (A-F)
– Display number of each grade entered
• Details about characters
– Single characters typically stored in a char data type
• char a 1-byte integer, so chars can be stored as ints
– Can treat character as int or char
• 97 is the numerical representation of lowercase ‘a’ (ASCII)
• Use single quotes to get numerical representation of character
cout << "The character (" << 'a' << ") has the value "

<< static_cast< int > ( 'a' ) << endl;

Prints
The character (a) has the value 97
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 56
1 // Fig. 2.22: fig02_22.cpp
2 // Counting letter grades.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig02_22.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 4)
6 using std::cin;
7 using std::endl;
8
9 // function main begins program execution
10 int main()
11 {
12 int grade; // one grade
13 int aCount = 0; // number of As
14 int bCount = 0; // number of Bs
15 int cCount = 0; // number of Cs
16 int dCount = 0; // number of Ds
17 int fCount = 0; // number of Fs
18
19 cout << "Enter the letter grades." << endl
20 << "Enter the EOF character to end input." << endl;
21

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 57
22 // loop until user types end-of-file key sequence
23 while ( ( grade = cin.get() ) != EOF ) {break causes switch to end and
Outline
24 the program continues with the first
25 // determine which grade was input statement after the switch structure.
fig02_22.cpp
26 switch ( grade ) { // switch structure nested in while
(2 of 4)
27
28 case 'A': // grade was uppercase A
cin.get() uses dot notation
29 case 'a': // or lowercase a
30 ++aCount; // increment aCount
(explained chapter 6). This
31 break; // necessary to exit switch function gets 1 character from the
32
Assignment statements have a keyboard (after Enter pressed), and
33 case 'B': // value,
grade which is the same
was uppercase B as it is assigned to grade.
34 case 'b': the variable
// or lowercase bon the left of the
35 ++bCount; // =. The valuebCount
increment of this statement cin.get() returns EOF (end-of-
36 break; // is the same
exit switchas the value file) after the EOF character is
Compares grade (an int) to
37
the numerical representations returned by cin.get(). input, to indicate the end of data.
38 case 'C': // grade was uppercase C
EOF may be ctrl-d or ctrl-z,
39of A and a. case 'c': // or lowercase c
This can also be used to depending on your OS.
40 ++cCount; // increment cCount
initialize multiple variables:
41 break; // exit switch
42
a = b = c = 0;

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 58
43 case 'D': // grade was uppercase D
44 case 'd': // or lowercase d
Outline
45 ++dCount; // increment dCount
46 break; // exit switch
fig02_22.cpp
47 This test is necessary because (3 of 4)
48 case 'F': // grade wasEnter is pressed
uppercase F after each
49 case 'f': // or lowercase f
letter grade is input. This adds
50 ++fCount; // increment fCount
a newline character that must
51 break; // exit switch
be removed. Likewise, we
52
53 case '\n': //
want to ignore any
ignore newlines,
54 case '\t': // tabs, whitespace.
55 case ' ': // and spaces in input
56 break; Notice the default
// exit switch statement, which
57 catches all other cases.
58 default: // catch all other characters
59 cout << "Incorrect letter grade entered."
60 << " Enter a new grade." << endl;
61 break; // optional; will exit switch anyway
62
63 } // end switch
64
65 } // end while
66

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 59
67 // output summary of results
68 cout << "\n\nTotals for each letter grade are:"
Outline
69 << "\nA: " << aCount // display number of A grades
70 << "\nB: " << bCount // display number of B grades
fig02_22.cpp
71 << "\nC: " << cCount // display number of C grades
(4 of 4)
72 << "\nD: " << dCount // display number of D grades
73 << "\nF: " << fCount // display number of F grades
74 << endl;
75
76 return 0; // indicate successful termination
77
78 } // end function main

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 60
Enter the letter grades.
Enter the EOF character to end input.
Outline
a
B
fig02_22.cpp
c
output (1 of 1)
C
A
d
f
C
E
Incorrect letter grade entered. Enter a new grade.
D
A
b
^Z

Totals for each letter grade are:

A: 3
B: 2
C: 3
D: 2
F: 1

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 61

2.17 do/while Repetition Structure

• Similar to while structure

– Makes loop continuation test at end, not beginning
– Loop body executes at least once
• Format
do {
statement
} while ( condition ); action(s)

true
condition

false

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 62
1 // Fig. 2.24: fig02_24.cpp
2 // Using the do/while repetition structure.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig02_24.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 1)
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution fig02_24.cpp
9 int main() output (1 of 1)
10 {
11 int counter = 1; // initialize counter
12 Notice the preincrement in
13 do { loop-continuation test.
14 cout << counter << " "; // display counter
15 } while ( ++counter <= 10 ); // end do/while
16
17 cout << endl;
18
19 return 0; // indicate successful termination
20
21 } // end function main

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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 63

2.18 break and continue Statements

• break statement
– Immediate exit from while, for, do/while, switch
– Program continues with first statement after structure
• Common uses
– Escape early from a loop
– Skip the remainder of switch

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 64
1 // Fig. 2.26: fig02_26.cpp
2 // Using the break statement in a for structure.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig02_26.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 2)
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11
12 int x; // x declared here so it can be used after the loop
13
14 // loop 10 times
15 for ( x = 1; x <= 10; x++ ) { Exits for structure when
16 break executed.
17 // if x is 5, terminate loop
18 if ( x == 5 )
19 break; // break loop only if x is 5
20
21 cout << x << " "; // display value of x
22
23 } // end for
24
25 cout << "\nBroke out of loop when x became " << x << endl;

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 65
26
27 return 0; // indicate successful termination
Outline
28
29 } // end function main
fig02_26.cpp
(2 of 2)
1 2 3 4
Broke out of loop when x became 5
fig02_26.cpp
output (1 of 1)

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 66

2.18 break and continue Statements

• continue statement
– Used in while, for, do/while
– Skips remainder of loop body
– Proceeds with next iteration of loop
• while and do/while structure
– Loop-continuation test evaluated immediately after the
continue statement
• for structure
– Increment expression executed
– Next, loop-continuation test evaluated

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 67
1 // Fig. 2.27: fig02_27.cpp
2 // Using the continue statement in a for structure.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig02_27.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 2)
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11 // loop 10 times
12 for ( int x = 1; x <= 10; x++ ) {
13 Skips to next iteration of the
14 // if x is 5, continue with loop.iteration of loop
next
15 if ( x == 5 )
16 continue; // skip remaining code in loop body
17
18 cout << x << " "; // display value of x
19
20 } // end for structure
21
22 cout << "\nUsed continue to skip printing the value 5"
23 << endl;
24
25 return 0; // indicate successful termination

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 68
26
27 } // end function main
Outline

1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 fig02_27.cpp
Used continue to skip printing the value 5 (2 of 2)

fig02_27.cpp
output (1 of 1)

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 69

2.19 Logical Operators

• Used as conditions in loops, if statements

• && (logical AND)
– true if both conditions are true
if ( gender == 1 && age >= 65 )
++seniorFemales;
• || (logical OR)
– true if either of condition is true
if ( semesterAverage >= 90 || finalExam >= 90 )
cout << "Student grade is A" << endl;

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 70

2.19 Logical Operators

• ! (logical NOT, logical negation)

– Returns true when its condition is false, & vice versa
if ( !( grade == sentinelValue ) )
cout << "The next grade is " << grade << endl;
Alternative:
if ( grade != sentinelValue )
cout << "The next grade is " << grade << endl;

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 71
2.20 Confusing Equality (==) and
Assignment (=) Operators
• Common error
– Does not typically cause syntax errors
• Aspects of problem
– Expressions that have a value can be used for decision
• Zero = false, nonzero = true
– Assignment statements produce a value (the value to be
assigned)

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 72
2.20 Confusing Equality (==) and
Assignment (=) Operators
• Example
if ( payCode == 4 )
cout << "You get a bonus!" << endl;
– If paycode is 4, bonus given

• If == was replaced with =

if ( payCode = 4 )
cout << "You get a bonus!" << endl;
– Paycode set to 4 (no matter what it was before)
– Statement is true (since 4 is non-zero)
– Bonus given in every case

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 73
2.20 Confusing Equality (==) and
Assignment (=) Operators
• Lvalues
– Expressions that can appear on left side of equation
– Can be changed (I.e., variables)
• x = 4;
• Rvalues
– Only appear on right side of equation
– Constants, such as numbers (i.e. cannot write 4 = x;)
• Lvalues can be used as rvalues, but not vice versa

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 74
2.21 Structured-Programming
Summary
• All programs broken down into
– Sequence
– Selection
• if, if/else, or switch
• Any selection can be rewritten as an if statement
– Repetition
• while, do/while or for
• Any repetition structure can be rewritten as a while
statement

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