Engineering

Thermodynamics
 Chapter One
Introduction and basic concepts of
thermodynamics
Objectives
 Identify the unique vocabulary associated with thermodynamics.
 Review the metric SI unit systems that will be used throughout the text.
 Explain the basic concepts of thermodynamics such as system, state, state
postulate, equilibrium, process, and cycle.
 Review concepts of temperature, temperature scales, pressure, and absolute and
gage pressure.
1–1 .THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY

 Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy.

 Energy can be viewed as the ability to cause changes.
 The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis (power).
 Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with the relationships between heat and
other forms of energy. In particular, it describes how thermal energy is converted to and from
other forms of energy and how it affects matter.
 Thermal energy is the energy a substance or system has due to its temperature, i.e., the energy
of moving or vibrating molecules.
 One of the most fundamental laws of nature is the conservation of energy principle.
 It simply states that during an interaction, energy can change from one form to another but
the total amount of energy remains constant. That is, energy cannot be created or destroyed.
Example:-
 A rock falling off a cliff, for
example, picks up speed as a
result of its potential energy
being converted to kinetic
energy.

Energy cannot be created or

destroyed; it can only change forms
(the first law).
Example:-
 The conservation of energy
principle also forms the backbone
of the diet industry: A person who
has a greater energy input (food)
than energy output (exercise) will
gain weight (store energy in the
form of fat), and a person who
has a smaller energy input than
output will lose weight.
Cont…
 The first law of thermodynamics is simply an expression of the
conservation of energy principle, and it asserts that energy is a
thermodynamic property.
 This means that heat energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can, however, be
transferred from one location to another and converted to and from other forms of
energy.
 The second law of thermodynamics asserts that energy has quality as
well as quantity, and actual processes occur in the direction of decreasing
quality of energy.
Example:-
 For example, a cup of hot coffee left on a
table eventually cools, but a cup of cool
coffee in the same room never gets hot
by itself.
Classical and statistical thermodynamics

 A macroscopic approach to the study of thermodynamics that does not require a

knowledge of the behavior of individual particles is called classical
thermodynamics.
 Ex:-the pressure of a gas in a container is the result of momentum transfer between
the molecules and the walls of the container.
 However, one does not need to know the behavior of the gas particles to determine
the pressure in the container. It would be sufficient to attach a pressure gage to the
container.
 A more elaborate approach, based on the average behavior of large groups of
individual particles, is called statistical thermodynamics.
Application areas of Thermodynamics

 All activities in nature involve some interaction between energy and matter; thus, it
is hard to imagine an area that does not relate to thermodynamics in some manner.
 Some examples include :-
 the heating and air-conditioning systems,

 the refrigerator,

 the shower,

 the iron,

 the pressure cooker,

 the water heater,

 and even the computer and the TV.

Cont…

 On a larger scale, thermodynamics plays a major part

in:-
 the design and analysis of automotive engines,
rockets,
jet engines, and conventional or nuclear power plants,
 solar collectors,
and the design of vehicles from ordinary cars to airplanes.
Cont…
DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

 Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions.

 The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called units.
 Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length L, time t, and temperature T are
selected as primary or fundamental dimensions, while others such as velocity V,
energy E, and volume V are expressed in terms of the prima dimensions and are
called secondary dimensions, or derived dimensions.
Cont…
 A number of unit systems have been developed over the years. Despite
strong efforts in the scientific and engineering community to unify the
world with a single unit system, two sets of units are still in common use
today:

1. the English system, which is also known as the United States

Customary System (USCS), and

2.the metric SI (from Le Système International d’Unités), which is also

known as the International System.
Cont…
 The SI is a simple and logical
system based on a decimal
relationship between the various
units, and it is being used for
scientific and engineering work in
most of the industrialized nations,
including England.
1–3 ■ SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES

 A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region

in space chosen for study.
 The mass or region outside the system is called the
surroundings.
 The real or imaginary surface that separates the system
from its surroundings is called the boundary.
 The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable.
Cont…

System, surroundings, Mass cannot cross the boundaries of a

and boundary. closed system, but energy can.
Open, closed and isolated system.
 Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on whether a fixed
mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen for study.
 A closed system (also known as a control mass) consists of a fixed amount of
mass, and no mass can cross its boundary.
 That is, no mass can enter or leave a closed system. But energy, in the form of heat
or work, can cross the boundary; and the volume of a closed system does not have
to be fixed.
 If, as a special case, even energy is not allowed to cross the boundary, that system
is called an isolated system.
Cont…
 An open system, or a control volume, as it is often called, is a properly selected
region in space.
 It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as:-
 a compressor,
 turbine,
 or nozzle.
 Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
 A water heater, a car radiator, a turbine, and a compressor all involve mass flow
and should be analyzed as control volumes (open systems) instead of as control
masses(closed systems).
Cont…
 The boundaries of a control volume are called a control surface, and they can be
real or imaginary.
 A control volume can be fixed in size and shape or it may involve a moving
boundary.
 Most control volumes, however, have fixed boundaries and thus do not involve any
moving boundaries.
 A control volume can also involve heat and work interactions just as a closed
system, in addition to mass interaction.
Cont…

A control volume with real and A control volume with fixed and
imaginary boundaries moving boundaries
1–4 ■ PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM

 Any characteristic of a system is called a property.

 Some familiar properties are:- pressure P, temperature T, volume V,
and mass m.
 Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive.
 Intensive properties are those that are independent of the mass of
a system, such as temperature, pressure, and density.
 Extensive properties are those whose values depend on the size—or
extent—of the system. Total mass, total volume, and total momentum
are some examples of extensive properties.
Cont…
 An easy way to determine whether a property is

intensive or extensive is to divide the system

into two equal parts with an imaginary partition.

 Each part will have the same value of intensive

properties as the original system, but half the

value of the extensive properties.

 Extensive properties per unit mass are called

specific properties. Some examples of specific

properties are specific volume and

specific total energy .

Criterion to differentiate intensive and

extensive properties.
1–5 ■ DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

 Density is defined as mass per unit volume.

 Density:-

 The reciprocal of density is the specific volume v, which is defined as volume per unit mass.

That is,

 The density of a substance, in general, depends on temperature and pressure.

 The density of most gases is proportional to pressure and inversely proportional to temperature.
 Liquids and solids, on the other hand, are essentially incompressible substances, and the

variation of their density with pressure is usually negligible.

Density is mass per unit volume; specific volume is volume per unit mass.
Cont…
 Sometimes the density of a substance is given relative to the density of a well-
known substance. Then it is called specific gravity, or relative density, and is
defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some standard
substance at a specified temperature (usually water at 4°C, for which .
That is,

Specific gravity:-

 Note that the specific gravity of a substance is a dimensionless quantity.

Cont…
 The weight of a unit volume of a substance is called specific
weight and is expressed as:-
Specific weight:-
where g is the gravitational acceleration.
1–6 ■ STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
 Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states.
 The word equilibrium implies a state of balance.
 In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials (or
driving forces) within the system.
 There are many types of equilibrium, and a system is not in
thermodynamic equilibrium unless the conditions of all the
relevant types of equilibrium are satisfied.
 For example:-
1.Thermal equilibrium

 a system is in thermal
equilibrium if the temperature is
the same throughout the entire
system.
 That is, the system involves no
temperature differential, which is
the driving force for heat flow.

A closed system reaching thermal

equilibrium.
2.Mechanical equilibrium
 Mechanical equilibrium is
related to pressure,
and a system is in mechanical
equilibrium if there is no
change in pressure at any
point of the system with
time.
 However, the pressure may
vary within the system with
elevation as a result of
gravitational effects.
3. Chemical equilibrium

 Finally, a system is in chemical equilibrium if its

chemical composition does not change with time, that
is, no chemical reactions occur.
 Note:- A system will not be in equilibrium unless all
the relevant equilibrium criteria are satisfied.
The State Postulate
 The number of properties required to fix the state of a system is given by the state
postulate:-

“The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two

independent, intensive properties.”
 A system is called a simple compressible system in the absence of electrical,
magnetic, gravitational, motion, and surface tension effects.
 The state postulate requires that the two properties specified be independent to fix
the state. Two properties are independent if one property can be varied while the
other one is held constant.
Cont…
 Temperature and specific volume, for example,

are always independent properties, and together

they can fix the state of a simple compressible

system.

 Temperature and pressure, however, are

independent properties for single-phase systems,

but are dependent properties for multiphase

systems.
 At sea level (P =1 atm), water boils at 100°C,

but on a mountaintop where the pressure is lower,

water boils at a lower temperature.

The state of nitrogen is fixed by two
independent, intensive properties.
Processes and cycles
 Any change that a system undergoes from
one equilibrium state to another is called a
process, and the series of states through
which a system passes during a process is
called the path of the process.
 When a process proceeds in such a
manner that the system remains
infinitesimally close to an equilibrium
state at all times, it is called a quasistatic,
or quasi-equilibrium, process.

A process between states 1 and 2 and

the process path.
Cont…
 A quasi-equilibrium process can
be viewed as a sufficiently slow
process that allows the system to
adjust itself internally so that
properties in one part of the
system do not change any faster
than those at other parts.
Cont…
 When a gas in a piston-cylinder device is compressed suddenly, the molecules near
the face of the piston will not have enough time to escape and they will have to pile
up in a small region in front of the piston, thus creating a high-pressure region there.
 Because of this pressure difference, the system can no longer be said to be in
equilibrium, and this makes the entire process nonquasi-equilibrium.
 However, if the piston is moved slowly, the molecules will have sufficient time to
redistribute and there will not be a molecule pileup in front of the piston.
 As a result, the pressure inside the cylinder will always be nearly uniform and will
rise at the same rate at all locations. Since equilibrium is maintained at all times, this
is a quasi-equilibrium process.
Cont…
 It should be pointed out that a quasi-equilibrium process is an idealized
process and is not a true representation of an actual process.
 But many actual processes closely approximate it, and they can be
modeled as quasie-quilibrium with negligible error.
 Engineers are interested in quasie-quilibrium processes for two reasons.
1st , they are easy to analyze;
2nd, work-producing devices deliver the most work when they
operate on quasi-equilibrium processes.
 Therefore, quasi-equilibrium processes serve as standards to which actual
processes can be compared.
Cont…
 The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process for which a particular property
remains constant. For example:-
 An isothermal process, for example, is a

process during which the temperature T remains constant.

 an isobaric process is a process during which the pressure P remains constant.
 isochoric (or isometric) process is a process during which the specific volume v
remains constant.
 A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its initial state at the
end of the process. That is, for a cycle the initial and final states are identical.
The Steady-Flow Process

 The term steady implies no change with time.

 The opposite of steady is unsteady, or transient.
 A large number of engineering devices operate for long periods of time under the same
conditions, and they are classified as steady-flow devices.
 Processes involving such devices can be represented reasonably well by a somewhat
idealized process, called the steady-flow process, which can be defined as a process
during which a fluid flows through a control volume steadily.
 That is, the fluid properties can change from point to point within the control volume,
but at any fixed point they remain the same during the entire process. Therefore, the
volume V, the mass m, and the total energy content E of the control volume remain
constant during a steady flow process.
Cont…

Under steady-flow conditions, the mass

and energy contents of a control volume
remain constant.
Cont…
 Steady-flow conditions can be closely approximated by devices that are intended
for continuous operation such as :-
 turbines,
 pumps,
 boilers,
 condensers, and
 heat exchangers or power plants or refrigeration systems.
TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH
LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
 It is a common experience that a cup of hot coffee left on the table
eventually cools off and a cold drink eventually warms up.
 That is, when a body is brought into contact with another body that is at a
different temperature, heat is transferred from the body at higher
temperature to the one at lower temperature until both bodies attain the
same temperature.
 At that point, the heat transfer stops, and the two bodies are said to have
reached thermal equilibrium.
Two bodies reaching thermal equilibrium after being brought into
contact in an isolated enclosure.
Cont…
 “The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if
two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third
body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each
other.”
Cont…

 TA TB

TC

if TA TC & TB TC

then TA TB
Temperature Scales
 The temperature scales used in the SI and in the English system today are the Celsius
scale (formerly called the centigrade scale) and the Fahrenheit scale, respectively.
 In thermodynamics, it is very desirable to have a temperature scale that is independent
of the properties of any substance or substances. Such a temperature scale is called a
thermodynamic temperature scale.
 The thermodynamic temperature scale in the SI is the Kelvin scale, named after Lord
Kelvin (1824–1907).
 The temperature unit on this scale is the kelvin, which is designated by K (not °K).
 The lowest temperature on the Kelvin scale is absolute zero, or 0 K.
Cont…
 The thermodynamic temperature scale in the English system is the Rankine scale, named after William
Rankine (1820–1872). The temperature unit on this scale is the rankine, which is designated by R.

 The Kelvin scale is related to the Celsius scale by:-

 The Rankine scale is related to the Fahrenheit scale by:-

 The temperature scales in the two unit systems are related by:-
1–9 ■ PRESSURE

 Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area.

 We speak of pressure only when we deal with a gas or a liquid.
 The counterpart of pressure in solids is normal stress.
 Since pressure is defined as force per unit area, it has the unit of Newton's per
square meter (N/m2), which is called a Pascal (Pa). That is,

 The pressure unit Pascal is too small for pressures encountered in practice.
 Therefore, its multiples kilopascal (1kPa=103 Pa) and Megapascal (1MPa=106 Pa)
are commonly used.
Cont…
 The other pressure units commonly used in practice, especially in Europe,
are bar and standard atmosphere.
 The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure,
and it is measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero
pressure).
Cont…
 Most pressure-measuring devices,
however, are calibrated to read zero
in the atmosphere, and so they
indicate the difference between the
absolute pressure and the local
atmospheric pressure. This
difference is called the gage
pressure.
 Pressures below atmospheric
pressure are called vacuum
pressures and are measured by
vacuum gages that indicate the
difference between the atmospheric
pressure and the absolute pressure.

Some basic pressure gages.

Cont…
 Absolute, gage, and vacuum
pressures are all positive quantities
and are related to each other by:-

 Like other pressure gages, the

gage used to measure the air
pressure in an automobile tire
reads the gage pressure.
Absolute, gage, and vacuum
pressures.
Variation of Pressure with Depth

 Pressure in a fluid increases with depth because more fluid rests on deeper
layers, and the effect of this “extra weight” on a deeper layer is balanced
by an increase in pressure.
Cont…
 To obtain a relation for the variation
of pressure with depth, consider a
rectangular fluid element of height z,
length x, and unit depth (into the
page) in equilibrium, as shown in the
Fig.
 Assuming the density of the fluid
to be constant, a force balance in the
vertical z-direction gives
Cont…

 Where is the weight of the fluid element. Dividing by

and rearranging gives

 Where is the specific weight of the fluid.

 Thus, we conclude that the pressure difference between two points in a constant
density fluid is proportional to the vertical distance z between the points and the
density of the fluid.
 In other words, pressure in a fluid increases linearly with depth.
Cont…
 For a given fluid, the vertical distance z is sometimes used as a measure of
pressure, and it is called the pressure head.
 We also conclude that for small to moderate distances, the variation of pressure
with height is negligible for gases because of their low density.
 The pressure in a tank containing a gas, for example, can be considered to be
uniform since the weight of the gas is too small to make a significant difference.
 Also, the pressure in a room filled with air can be assumed to be constant.
Cont…
 If we take point 1 to be at the free
surface of a liquid open to the
atmosphere, where the pressure is the
atmospheric pressure Patm, then the
pressure at a depth h from the free
surface becomes

 Liquids are essentially incompressible

substances, and thus the variation of
density with depth is negligible. This
is also the case for gases when the
elevation change is not very large.
Cont…
 A consequence of the pressure in a fluid remaining constant in the horizontal
direction is that the pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount. This is called Pascal’s law.
Cont…
 Pascal also knew that the force applied by a fluid is proportional to the surface
area.
 He realized that two hydraulic cylinders of different areas could be connected, and
the larger could be used to exert a proportionally greater force than that applied to
the smaller.
 This is what enables us to lift a car easily by one arm, as shown in the Fig.
Cont…
 Noting that P1=P2 since both pistons are at the same level (the effect of
small height differences is negligible, especially at high pressures), the
ratio of output force to input force is determined to be:-

 The area ratio A2/A1 is called the ideal mechanical advantage of the
hydraulic lift.
1–10 ■ THE MANOMETER
 manometer is a device which is
commonly used to measure small and
moderate pressure differences.
 Consider the manometer shown in the
Fig that is used to measure the pressure
in the tank.
 Since the gravitational effects of gases
are negligible, the pressure anywhere in
the tank and at position 1 has the same
value.

The basic manometer.

Cont…
 Furthermore, since pressure in a fluid does not vary in the horizontal direction
within a fluid, the pressure at point 2 is the same as the pressure at point 1, P2=P1.

 The differential fluid column of height h is in static equilibrium, and it is open to

the atmosphere. Then the pressure at point 2 is determined directly from the eqn.:-

 Where is the density of the fluid in the tube.

Example:-

 Measuring Pressure with a Manometer

Example:-
Other Pressure Measurement Devices
 Another type of commonly used
mechanical pressure measurement
device is the Bourdon tube, which
consists of a hollow metal tube bent
like a hook whose end is closed and
connected to a dial indicator needle.
 When the tube is open to the
atmosphere, the tube is undeflected,
and the needle on the dial at this state
is calibrated to read zero (gage
pressure). When the fluid inside the
tube is pressurized, the tube stretches
and moves the needle in proportion to
the pressure applied.
Various types of Bourdon tubes used
to measure pressure.
Cont…
 Modern pressure sensors, called pressure transducers, use various techniques to convert
the pressure effect to an electrical effect such as a change in voltage, resistance, or
capacitance.
 Pressure transducers are smaller and faster, and they can be more sensitive, reliable, and
precise than their mechanical counterparts.
 They can measure pressures from less than a millionth of 1 atm to several thousands of atm.
 A wide variety of pressure transducers is available to measure gage, absolute, and
differential pressures in a wide range of applications. For example:-
1. Gage pressure transducers
2. Strain-gage pressure transducers
3. Piezoelectric transducers
Cont…
 Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a
barometer; thus, the atmospheric pressure is often referred to
as the barometric pressure.
The end!!